A History of the Media and the American Presidency: Part 2 - President John Adams’ Battles with the Media

When looking back at the history of the media’s role in the American Presidency, it is easy to see many comparisons to today.  President Donald Trump’s dilemma with the media is not much different than that two of his predecessors faced, John Adams and Andrew Jackson.  Both men lived in a time that saw vicious attacks on their character by the media.  President Adams was seen as a monarchist despite the role he played in America’s independence. President Jackson was referred to as “King Andrew I” because he utilized the full power of the presidency, something that his predecessors had failed to do. 

In a three-part series, this work will look at how the media played a role in characterizing both Adams (as vice president during his first term and as president) and Jackson (as president) while also looking at how both men battled against their relentless attacks.

In part 2, Ian Craig looks at what happened during John Adams’ presidency from 1797 to 1801, including the Alien and Sedition Acts and his interaction with France during the French Revolution.

If you missed it, part 1 on John Adams’ and the media when he was Vice President is here.

A British political cartoon of Franco-American relations after the XYZ Affair in 1798. 5 Frenchmen plunder female "America", while six figures representing other European countries look on. The British John Bull sits laughing on "Shakespeare's Cliff."

The President by Three Votes

On March 4, 1797 John Adams became president promising to “preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United States.” As the nation’s second president, Adams would find himself having to protect the young nation from foreign influences while battling the American media.  President Adams did not come to the presidency by a sweeping margin. By 1796, although the founding fathers had not intended for it to happen, political parties arose in the nation. Adams, a Federalist and supporter of a strong federal government, found himself up against Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson was a Democratic-Republican and a supporter of giving more rights to the states (there are more differences between the two parties which will be explained later). Adams won the election by just three votes in the Electoral College. Adams’ received 71 votes to Jefferson’s 68 and just over 53 percent of the national popular vote to Jefferson’s 47 percent. Due to this, Adams was often called the “president by three votes” by the media.[1] This originated from the Philadelphia based newspaper the Aurora which would give Adams much grief during his presidency. Adams did not buy into the scrutiny of the Philadelphia paper - after all, he had won both the popular vote and the electoral vote. 

However, Adams had to work with a vice president who disagreed with him on almost every matter. Because Jefferson had placed second, he became vice president. This meant that both the president and vice president were from two different political parties. This was not intended when the Constitution was written. By 1800, the selection of the president and vice president would ensure that both came from the same political party; however, the rise of political parties meant that Adams had to endure the onslaught of those in the press who supported the Democratic-Republicans.

Foreign Influences

A key issue that Adams had in assuming office was the French Revolution. France had been in a revolution since 1789 and had sought support from President Washington. Washington did not want the young United States to enter a war so early after its own independence. This angered the French and those in America who supported them. Their argument was that France had come to the aid of America during its own revolution and that it was time to return the favor. Then Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson supported the French and their cause, as did many in America. However, Washington would not commit to supporting the French Revolution and remained neutral. 

John Adams wished to continue the same policy that his predecessor had committed to. Adams felt that the United States could not engage in a full-scale war, as it was not prepared. Nor did he believe it was the right decision for the young nation. This was when Adams would face the onslaught of negative coverage by the Democratic-Republican allied press. The root of the rift between the Adams’ Federalist Party and the Democratic-Republicans was a matter of a difference in opinion. In 1794, Washington had sent Chief Justice John Jay to make a final peace with Britain and to settle some remaining “bad blood” between the two nations. This became known as Jay’s Treaty. This upset the Democratic-Republicans led by Thomas Jefferson who denounced British involvement in the French Revolution. They viewed the treaty as America taking sides in the war. This also angered the French, who began to seize American ships.

Before going forward, it is important to state the difference between the political ideologies of the Federalists, led by Alexander Hamilton, and the Democratic-Republicans, led by Thomas Jefferson. The Federalists, who supported Adams, wanted an economy based on that of Britain with the wealthier controlling such areas as manufacturing. They also believed in a strong central or federal government (hence the name “federalists”). The Democratic-Republicans supported more power for the states and less power for central government. They also supported an economy based on the working and agricultural classes, similar to France. It is for these reasons that both sides supported either Britain or France.

Relations worsen

Early in the Adams presidency, what became known as the XYZ affair occurred. In order to stop the French from seizing American ships, Adams sent an envoy to France in order to settle the matter. What became of the matter upset many Americans, including the President. The French under Foreign Minister Talleyrand sent three officials to discuss terms with the Americans. However, they would not talk to them unless a sum of money was given to each man plus a loan to France. The American diplomats refused to pay and once the news got to Adams he was outraged. He refused to call the three French diplomats by their names and referred to them as “XYZ.” This caused tensions to rise between the United States and France. The Democratic-Republican press called the president “unhinged by the delirium of vanity”[2] over his supposed “insult of the French” by refusing to pay their demands.[3]

Adams wanted nothing more than peace with France and worked to establish that outcome. However, he also looked to build up the American military, with heavy emphasis on the navy.[4] Adams believed that the navy was important to securing American sovereignty along its shores and overseas. He pushed for the building of several frigates; one such ship was the U.S.S. Constitution. It is for this reason that he is often referred to as the “father of the U.S. navy.”

                  This caused tensions with the Democratic-Republicans and Jefferson, who did not like the idea of America having a standing army that was under the control of the federal government. The Federalists on the other hand supported it for many reasons. The key issue that came to dominate Adams’ presidency was how foreigners were influencing Americans to support the French Revolution. This was the Federalists greatest fear, an attempt to force the American government to side with the French.  This would cause instability within the government. Federalists believed that those from Ireland, England, and Scotland, many of whom worked in the printing press, would “spread fears or lies to the public in order to upset the stability of the union and government.”[5]

                  It is for this reason that the Federalist began to push Adams to support the Alien and Sedition Acts. These two Acts would become a controversy in America. The Alien Act was designed to “deport non-citizens who were a threat to the nation’s security.”[6] The Federalists and many other Americans believed that these foreigners would influence insurrection and rebellion in the nation. This would then lead to the instability of the United States. The Act was designed to protect national security by all means. The Sedition Act drew more scrutiny, as it appeared to violate the First Amendment. It stated that “people who spoke out against the government or harmed its position could be imprisoned.”[7] This in-turn, focused on those of the press who disagreed with the president and other government officials. 

Media debates

The Democratic-Republican press saw both acts as limiting the “rights of foreigners who were more likely to vote for them.”[8]They believed that the Federalists were attempting to silence the opposition by passing both laws. The Federalist press disagreed and saw them as “protecting the union from internal instability and treats.”[9] That it “gave juries the right to decide what printed material was hurtful or not.”[10] Adams himself never pursued the Alien and Sedition Acts.[11] He did not sign them into law without careful consideration, he did so having felt support for them by the American people.  This however, would come back to hurt him. Members of the press like Benjamin Franklin Bach wrote in his newspaper that the President had used an “unconstitutional exercise of power”[12] and was charged for insulting the president.  At the same time Thomas Cooper of the Pennsylvania Gazette and David Frothingham of the New York Argus were both convicted of speaking against the government and imprisoned.[13]

Jefferson and the Democratic-Republicans would campaign in 1800 against these acts of what they saw as abuse by the federal government. During the election of 1800, the Federalist Party had fractured over disagreements between Adams and its leader Alexander Hamilton. Adams’ dismissal of the standing army, which he believed was no longer needed, angered Hamilton and others. Adams had also refused to take a strong federal stance during Fries Rebellion against Hamilton’s wishes.[14] The result was that Adams lost the election of 1800 to Thomas Jefferson. Adams refused to attend Jefferson’s inauguration, being the first of four presidents to do so. Adams’ legacy is often seen as negative because of the Alien and Sedition Acts and his refusal to support France. However, he followed the stance of George Washington by keeping the United States neutral. The media hated him for this and called him every name imaginable. However, during the early days of the republic, Adams worked to preserve the nation and to make sure that it would be given a chance to survive and prosper as the founding fathers had wished. It is hard to say what would have happened if he had done the opposite and supported the French. The United States would have found itself in another war not so long after another. It was still new and fragile, Adams knew this and worked to pursue peace by a show of force in order to give the United States a fighting chance. 

What do you think of John Adams’ battles with the media? Let us know below.

Now, you can read Ian’s previous article on possibly the most important reason for the American Revolution here.

[1] David McCullough, John Adams (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2001), 485. 

[2] Ibid, 498.

[3] Ibid, 498.

[4] Ibid, 485.

[5] Jackie Mansky, “The Age-Old Problem of ‘Fake News’: It’s been part of the conversation as far back as the birth of the free press,” Smithsonian Magazine, https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/age-old-problem-fake-news-180968945/ [assessed January 12, 2021]. 

[6] “The Presidency of John Adams: The Alien and Sedition Acts,” Khan Academy, https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/us-history/road-to-revolution/creating-a-nation/a/presidency-of-john-adams [assessed January 12, 2021]. 

[7] Ibid, “The Alien and Sedition Acts.”

[8] Mansky, “The Age-Old Problem of ‘Fake News.”

[9] Ibid. 

[10] Ibid. 

[11] C. James Taylor, “John Adams: Impact and Legacy,” The Miller Center, http://millercenter.org/president/adams/impact-and-legacy [assessed January 12, 2021]. 

[12] Eric P. Robinson, “Another President Who Took On ‘Fake News,’” South Carolina Press, https://scpress.org/another-president-who-took-on-fake-news/ [assessed January 12, 2021].

[13] Ibid. 

[14] C. James Taylor, “John Adams: Impact and Legacy.”

Michelangelo and the Statue of David

The Italian sculptor, painter, architect, and poet Michelangelo was born in Caprese, a hill town not far from Florence, in 1474. The town was located only six miles away from a marble quarry that provided local sculptors with their life blood for many years. It was to flow through Michelangelo’s veins stronger than any other. One particular chunk of marble, though destined for greatness, began its journey in 1463 when Agostino di Duccio was commissioned to create a sculpture of the Biblical David.

Douglas Reid explains.

A 19th century photo of Michelangelo’s state of David. This was when the statue was still outside the Palazzo Vecchio. Taken by John Brampton Philpot.

Marble was provided from the famous quarry in Carrara, a marble mine close to Caprese. The combination of marble and Agostino soon waned. The sculptor abandoned the commission and the statue three years later in 1466. In three years all he had achieved was beginning to shape the legs. It was time to try again. Enter one Antonio Rossollino. His stewardship was to be even shorter. This time the block of marble was to lie unattended for 26 years. During this dry time the marble was so neglected the outline of an Apollo was pressed, in ignoble fashion, face down to the ground. It looked much the same as a contemporary hockey goaltender face down, scrambling to find the puck. An expensive hunk of marble had lain fallow too long.    

Michelangelo is chosen

The Operai were determined to find an artist who could take this large piece of marble and transform it into a finished piece of art. They ordered the block of stone, which they called the giant, raised to its feet. Leonardo, among others, was consulted, and it was Michelangelo who convinced the Operai that he deserved the commission. Michelangelo began carving the statue early in the morning of September 13, 1501. He would work on it between 1501 and 1504.

David was installed close to the Palazzo Vecchio. It took four days to move the statue half a mile from Michelangelo’s workshop to the Piazza della Signoria. Later that summer a sling and tree stump support were gilded, and the figure was given a gilded loin-garland.

In 1873, the statue of David was removed from the piazza, to protect it from damage, and displayed in the Accademia Gallery, Florence. More recent times have brought grief. In 1991, Piero Cannata, an artist who the police described as unwell, attacked the statue with a hammer he had concealed in his jacket. He later claimed that a 16th century Venetian painter’s model had ordered him to do so. Later testing confirmed that Piero had mental health issues. The height of Michelangelo’s masterpiece is 16 feet and it checks in at 16 tons. Still, many tourists believe they have spotted a flaw in assessing David’s hands. They do look too large, and in fact they are too large – at ground level but original plans called for David to be lifted to the Church’s roof line and hands are foreshortened at height. 

Where David looks

In fact, where a Renaissance sculpture is placed is revealing. For that matter, so is the Medici family. And you will notice a steady orange glare emanates from David. It is like the steady fire from the eye of a tiger. The spectator feels as much as he feels the tension of the moment. This is because wherever the statue is placed, whether indoors or outdoors, it is always facing south. This is because Rome is south, as is the Medici family. Each of which is south of Florence. David is staring down the Romans.

 To understand this you have to understand the history of the Italian peninsula. Tuscany is an important province in the North and blonde Tuscans are not rare. Southern Italians are generally of darker complexions. Italy was poorer in the South and consequently the great majority of Italian migrants to North America are from the southern parts of Italy. Ergo, the rest of us believe all Italians have dark hair and olive skin. This rivalry can be seen on the soccer pitch. If, for example, a foreign team is playing against a team from say, Naples, you can count on the Tuscan fans to be cheering for the foreign team. And that is why David’s brilliant eyes are focused as they are. It is time we look at David’s creator.

Michelangelo tales

Michelangelo is probably not who you think he is either. In street language Michelangelo was a surly slob. As a youngster he avoided normal schooling and spent virtually all his free time helping older established artists with their painting and their sculpture. His fights with others were numerous. But he clearly showed uncommon ability in both painting and sculpture. He was also an accomplished poet. It seems as though the Deity gave so much to Michelangelo in these that he harbored no other gifts for him. For openers Michelangelo Buonarotti was ugly. His face was gathered round a flattened pug nose. His body was misshapen and ungainly. His clothes were always crinkled – probably because he often slept in them. He routinely scuffled around both artists and art works in a pair of unlaced muddy boots. Not surprising then, to learn that he never married. Like we said he was also surly. 

There is a Michelangelo story that has been handed down which, if not true, should be.  It seems that our hero was walking down a Florence street when he spotted his great rival, Leonardo, walking with friends on the other side. Michelangelo threw some taunts at him. The upshot was one of Leonardo’s friends crossed the street for the purpose of further re-arranging that famous nose. Why do I have the feeling I am writing West Side Story?

Conclusion

Some final thoughts on the Michelangelo who matters – that sublime artist who created David. Why do I rate his David over the Pope’s ceiling? The latter is not cut from whole cloth. It is really 12 or so Bible stories sharing the same space. David, by contrast, presents a unified whole. What about Da Vinci’s Mona Lisa? Here the key comparison is one of scope. The Mona Lisa is relatively small. Michelangelo is of Olympian scope. What is more, while the painting took hours to create the sculpture required years.  

A final tale to tell. Here I was standing in a two-hour line-up to see David for the first time when a conversation was commenced with a young lady who was next in line. The conversation went something like this:

 - Have you seen David before?

 - Oh yes.

 - And you are back again?

 - The first time I was here I was over whelmed. At the time I was an economics major. After my visit here I returned home, sold my economic texts and registered in an arts program.

I rest my case.

What do you think of the author’s view on Michelangelo and the statue of David? Let us know below.

Now, you can read more from Douglas here, with an article on the man whose book may have led to the American Revolution.

The Tower of Babel and Modern World History

The links between modern world history and Biblical times have been considered in many ways over the centuries. And here, Daniel L. Smith looks at how history could be taught with reference to the Bible, suggesting the evidence for links to the Tower of Babel and long-standing human practices.

Illustration of the Tower of Babel, published in Turris Babel by Athanasius Kircher.

The history of original indigenous contact with Europeans should be taught differently, considering the absence of written documentation. It should be done with logic, reasoning, and science of course. The way American society has been taught the history of the world has changed since the start of the 1900s. Creation is what America was originally taught about human beginnings prior to this. So, here is a theory for how the origins of North America could be considered if we were to return to that way of thinking.

“It begins when the Flood subsides. Noah plants a vineyard, makes wine, and falls into a stupor in his tent. Ham . . . sees his father's nakedness and tells his two brothers what has happened.... When Noah wakes up and learns what has happened, he lays a curse not upon Ham but upon Ham's son: 'Accursed be Canaan. He shall be his brothers' meanest slave.' . . . Whizzing forward to the medieval versions we learn more about the nature of Ham's misdeeds. He mocked Noah's nakedness, and invited his brothers to do the same (which they refused). What is more, this is not the first of Ham's transgressions. When they had all been on the Ark together, Noah had insisted that everyone be sexually continent, but Ham, by the aid of a magic demon, slept with his wife…” [1] And the Curse of Ham was in effect.

The Tower of Babel in Mesopotamia was the next “Fall of Man.” The world was a wicked place in the days of Noah. Compared to most European lifestyles they were observed as disgraceful, disgusting, violent, immoral, and unethical societies and in those days, it was something horrific. Dr. David Leston wrote that “archaeologists have unearthed bodies of people who lived in Mesopotamia, they have found evidence that cannibalism was practiced. In short, this was a very brutal era, in which humanity showed little to no regard for one another.” [2]

He goes on to mention that in “January 1996 National Geographic did a comparison between rodeo riders and their injuries, and skeletons uncovered from the time of Noah. They found striking similarities between the injuries of the two groups, suggesting that this was a very violent society. When people reject God and the boundaries and purposes that He has created for them, they become a law unto themselves, and society becomes weaker and more dangerous.” [3] The net results are often the same - anarchy and a violent world. So, God flooded the world and spared the only honest and Godly man alive at the time. It was Noah who God gave the task of rebuilding civilization.

After the flood

It was right after the Flood that people would repopulate the Fertile Crescent (the Middle East). This was a very fertile and agriculturally productive area which was developed quickly and fought over heavily. One of humankind’s early technological developments was the ability to design, manipulate materials and make structures such as buildings. It was mankind’s obligation from God to subdue the earth. He ultimately gave mankind all the faculties necessary to create great constructions. However, in man’s rebellion against God, this gift was used in ways to honor men and not Him—such as The Tower of Babel. This attempt at building a ziggurat mega-structure was humankind's next attempt at playing God. 

Above all else

In Genesis 11, the tower planners said: “Come, let us build ourselves a city and a tower with its top in the heavens, and let us make a name for ourselves, lest we be dispersed over the face of the whole earth.” The planners of course were referring to making a name for mankind above God’s name. God saw this ability of men to centralize power effectively for the purposes of glorifying themselves. He then—in an instant—created world languages to confuse the masses and dispersed them globally. This is where dispersion across the globe took effect.

The evidence offered by National Geographic parallels ancient cannibalism to what we see in Native North America (and globally). It makes sense that at dispersion why humankind had kept their basic tribal customs alive. Cannibalism was a custom and ritual that was carried on and practiced by indigenous peoples since the beginnings… hence, the “Curse of Ham.” [4] Marshall Sahlins, an anthropologist, viewed cannibalism as a variety of symbolism, cosmology, rituals, and traditions. [5]

In this way, the theory that the Portuguese in North Africa in the early 15th century had cannibalistic tendencies makes sense. Consider the technological example of human civilization and human capital. In all, there was no major advancement of “civilization” until the mid-15th century - the time after the printing press was invented by Gutenberg. Europe was still shut into Medieval thinking. It was still the Dark Ages.

There has been scientific evidence, as suggested earlier, that makes cannibalism very widespread and indeed an ancient tribal global human practice. This would make sense considering the religious and socio-political foundations at that time. [8] It was part of the animistic tribal lifestyle that was inherited by the first generation of those original peoples dispersed at the Tower of Babel. [9] This has been carried well into modern times.

Daniel’s book on mid-19th century northern California is now available. Find our more here: Amazon US | Amazon UK

References

1. Braude, Benjamin. "The Sons of Noah and the Construction of Ethnic and Geographical Identities in the Medieval and Early Modern Periods." The William and Mary Quarterly 54, no. 1 (1997), 103. doi:10.2307/2953314.

2. Dr. Leston, Stephen, and Christopher D. Hudson. "From Creation to the Tower of Babel | The Age of Noah." In The Bible in World History: How History and Scripture Intersect, 31. Uhrichsville: Barbour Pub, 2011.

3. Ibid. p. 32.

4. "DNA and Native Americans." Book of Mormon Evidence. Last modified October 16, 2019. https://bookofmormonevidence.org/dna-and-native-americans/.

5. Harris, Marvin. "‘Cannibals and Kings’: An Exchange." The New York Review of Books. Last modified November 21, 2015. https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1979/06/28/cannibals-and-kings-an-exchange/.

6. Freud, Sigmund. "Totem and Taboo; Resemblances Between the Psychic Lives of Savages and Neurotics." Internet Archive. Accessed December 14, 2020. https://archive.org/stream/totemtabooresemb00freu.

7. Allina, Eric. "The Zimba, the Portuguese, and Other Cannibals in Late Sixteenth-century Southeast Africa." Journal of Southern African Studies 37, no. 2 (2011), 211-227. doi:10.1080/03057070.2011.579433.

8. Helmenstine, Ph.D, Anne M. "What You Need to Know About Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy." ThoughtCo. Accessed December 14, 2020. https://www.thoughtco.com/mad-cow-disease-overview-602185.

9. Genesis 6:5 & 6:6, The Holy Bible.

The Second Indian Mughal Emperor: Humayun, The Underdog Prince

The Mughals have left an undeniable imprint upon the Indian landscape; their legacy is seen in the form of culture, architecture and art. Their rule lasted for more than 300 years, from 1526 to 1857. There have been a whole brood of Mughal emperors, but none stood out as much as the first six, the creators of the Mughal legacy. Many of their descendants would take advantage of the riches and power that they had inherited. However, infighting among them paved the way for other princes and ultimately the British to take control.

In part 2, we look at the second Mughal Emperor, Humayun. He reigned from 1530-1540 and again from 1555-1556. He led a constant battle to maintain his father’s empire, in part due to a request from his father. Khadija Tauseef explains.

If you missed it you can read part one in the series on the first Mughal Emperor Babur here.

The second Mughal emperor, Humayun. This a detail of a miniature from the Baburnama, 1590s.

Humayun was the most beloved son of the Emperor Babur and his favorite wife Maham Begum, born to them on March 6, 1508. The prince was his father’s favorite. When Humayun fell gravely ill, and many believed that only God could save him, an Amir suggested offering something of value in exchange for the prince’s health. It was at this moment that Babur offered his own life in exchange for his son’s. And so, the story goes that Babur’s condition began to worsen while Humayun started to get better. Ultimately in 1530, Babur passed away and left the throne to Humayun. However, there was one piece of advice that Babur gave to Humayun before his death that would cause many problems in Humayun’s reign.

Humayun Rule

Babur wanted to conquer new territory; thus, he paved the way for the creation of the Mughal Empire. During his conquests Babur would conquer territory and, in order to sustain control, he would leave his heir in charge. From the beginning Babur had decided that Humayun would be the one who would succeed to the throne after Babur’s death. Unfortunately, Humayun did not have his father’s spirit and he failed to keep the empire intact for long. A key reason for this was that Babur had asked Humayun to do nothing that would harm his brothers. 

Thus, in order to ensure that his brothers would be happy, he decided to assign territories to them as Zeenut Zaid explains:

“Under the tradition of appanage rule, Humayun conceded control of Badakhshan to Sulaiman, of Kabul to Kamran, and gave large districts in India to two of his other brothers to administer”

Shortly after Humayun had bestowed them the territories, Kamran rose and asserted full independent control over Kabul and Punjab. Humayun, bound by his father’s command, could do nothing to stop his brothers. So, weakened by sibling rivalries, the difficult task of defending and consolidating his father’s conquests in the north of India fell to him. The biggest threat came in the shape of powerful Afghan warriors.

Mughal Rule hanging by a thread

Humayun attempted to conquer the Sultanate of Gujarat in a five-year campaign, it was here that he first came up against Sher Khan Sur; an Afghan commander who had been rapidly consolidating his power and eventually became the leader of the Afghans. Humayun fought two battles against Sher Khan but lost both. Humayun fled from his adversaries to Sindh, where for seven months he laid siege to Sehwan, without success. It was at this time that Humayun’s allies began abandoning him. 

It was in Sindh that he met Hamida, a fourteen-year old girl of Persian descent. It was from this union that his son Akbar was born. Unable to make progress in India, Humayun fled to Iran with his new wife by his side. It was in Iran that Humayun met Shah Tahmasp, a man who would provide the Mughal king with support to recapture his kingdom. While Humayun had been wandering he had also been reacquainted with Bayram Khan, one of his Babur soldiers. With the help of his new allies, Humayun marched on India determined to take back his father’s empire. This time his brothers would not be spared; their territories would be reclaimed for the Mughal Empire. 

Kamran was the only sibling who continued to create problems for Humayun. Therefore, although he couldn’t bring himself to kill his brother, he did have him blinded. Humayun had regained the Mughal Empire that his father had conquered, but unfortunately before he could consolidate his rule, he died. A year after seizing back control, Humayun had been in his study and it was here that he slipped and fell from the stairs, resulting in his untimely death. Humayun left behind his 12 year old son, Akbar, who inherited the turbulent and uncertain empire of the Mughals.

Humayun the Astrologer

Unlike most rulers, Humayun arranged his entire life according to the astrological signs, something which was most unusual for the time. Even though many other Mughals also believed in the power of the stars, Humayun took his obsession to the next level. As Michael H. Fisher explains:

“He identified each weekday with an astral body, himself wearing self-designed robes of the conforming color while conducting the corresponding imperial functions. For instance, on Tuesday, identified with the astrological planet Mars, Humayun wore red garments, sat ‘on the throne of wrath and vengeance,’ and directed the sentencing of each criminal and war-captive to imaginative punishments, guided by Humayun’s own inspired insight into the otherwise hidden essence of the prisoner and his alleged deeds. Humayun ordered his tents to be symbolically made in twelve sections, each representing a zodiac sign.” 

Humayun’s reliance upon the zodiac signs can even be seen in the way that he arranged his government. Fisher explains:

“In another scheme, he divided the branches of his administration according to the prime natural elements: fire (the military), air (his household), water (irrigation) and earth (buildings and lands). Each branch’s officials were to wear robes of the corresponding color.”

The courtiers would be sorted into these administrative divisions according to their zodiac sign and its corresponding element. However, this system may have been the reason why Humayun suffered greatly in his life. Relying upon the zodiac, many people who may not have been fit for a certain role may have been assigned tasks that didn’t suit them. Humayun’s brothers were aware of this weakness and that’s partly why they choose to take advantage of this and rebel against their brother. At the same time Humayun was faced with the Afghan threat led by Sher Khan, who would later take the title of Sher Shah Suri.

What do you think of Humayun’s life? Let us know below.

Now, you can read Khadija’s article on “The Fascinating History of Lahore Fort in Pakistan” here.

The Navajo Code from World War Two: Was it Unbreakable?

The Navajo Code, which was used during the Second World War, has become one of the most famous military codes of all time. The code was developed in 1942 for use by the United States Marine Corps. This code was complex and sophisticated which made it perfect for military use. The Navajo Code’s complexity made it different from other Native American military codes used at the time or in World War I. The code was never broken but there was a close call during World War II. It achieved some important successes during the conflict, and became invaluable to the U.S. Marines and helped baffle the Japanese military.

Daniel Boustead explains.

Navajo code talkers. Saipan, Northern Mariana Islands, June 1944.

The Japanese Military had cracked every code the United States had used through 1942(1). The Marines in charge of communications were getting skittish([1]).  There was an imminent need for an unbreakable code!  Civil Engineer Philip Johnston, who had spent time on the Navajo Reservation came up with the idea of using the Navajo language (which was unwritten and understood only by those who lived with the Navajos) as the basis for an unbreakable code([2]).  Philip Johnston presented the idea to the U.S. Marine Corps ‘top brass’ and they decided to implement the idea right away(2). Communications officer Major James E. Jones, Major General Clayton B. Vogel (commander of Amphibious Corps, Pacific Fleet), and Commandant Thomas Holcomb were responsible for launching and recruiting the men who became code talkers(3). These men agreed on the need for the maximum secrecy of the program([3]). 

In February, 1942 at Camp Elliot, Vogel and Jones witnessed and ran a test experiment with Navajo men(3). This test experiment involved the Navajo men giving Navajo words to military terms in the period of an hour(3). Jones and Vogel also witnessed Navajo and Marine communications men transmitting several messages resembling in style and content the military messages that would be used in battle(3). At the time the standard used code was the “Shackle” code, which was written in English, encoded via a coding machine, and sent(3). Then the receiving end decoded the message, again via machine, and wrote it out English(3). It took an hour to transmit and receive the test messages using the “Shackle Code”(3). In contrast, when the same messages were transmitted and received in Navajo - with the Navajo men acting as human coding machines - it took only forty seconds for the information to be transmitted accurately(3). The test experiment was a success and Vogel agreed to launch a pilot, but due to the secrecy of the program it was decided to limit the trial program to 29 Navajo men(3). From  July 1942 to September 1942, 29 Navajo men from Platoon 382 helped invent and develop the Navajo Code([4]). The 29 Navajo men of Platoon 382 asked three Navajo speaking military men named Felix Yazzie, Ross Haskie, and Wilson Price to help them work on the Navajo Code([5]).  Navajo Code Talker Chester Nez said of the addition of  these three men “I don’t know why historians insist on separating them from the original twenty-nine. For me, it was the original thirty-two. They deserved credit for the code just as much as any of us did”(5). 

A unique code

The Navajo Code differed from other Native American Codes used in the past, in that the Navajo resisted adopting English words and folding them into the Navajo language like telephone and radio([6]).  The Navajo instead made up their own words for such inventions such as telephone and radio and thus keeping their language free from outside influence([7]). A person who is not Navajo finds it difficult to hear Navajo words properly, virtually impossible for him to reproduce the words, and nearly impossible to even pronounce even one word of Navajo if they are not used to hearing the sounds(6). Furthermore, as future Navajo Code Talker Sam Tso said “My language, my Navajo language, does not have an alphabet. we cannot write down our language, and we cannot read it. So, when they invented this code they used the English alphabet and they gave a certain word, to the ABC’s there and then as I looked at it and found out they have divided all those ABC’s according to the animals that lived in the water, travel on the water, that flew in the air, and those animals that live on the land. So, they divided into three parts”([8]). 

There were two types of Navajo code developed by the original Navajo Code Talkers(9). The first was the Type 1 code, which consisted of 26 Navajo terms that stood for individual English letters that could be used to spell out a word(9). For instance, the Navajo word for “ant”, in Navajo wo-la-chee, was used to represent the letter “a” in English([9].) Also, the original Navajo Code Talkers developed the Type 2 Navajo Code which contained words that could be translated from English into Navajo and included a dictionary (9).  For example, in the Type 2 Navajo Code there was no existing word for “submarine”, so the Navajo Code Talkers agreed to use the term besh-lo, which translates to “iron fish”(9).

In contrast, during World War I, Choctaw and Comanche soldiers transmitted messages in their complex language to stymie the Germans, which was by no means a code (6).The Choctaw and Comanche were used on a limited basis during World War I(6).  It was after World War I had ended that the Germans discovered which native languages had been employed by sending “tourists”, “scholars”, and “anthropologists” to learn the languages of various Native American tribes (6). Fortunately, the Navajo were not visited by these Germans spies(6). This prevented the secrets of the Navajo language from being passed on to Nazi Germany’s ally, Imperial Japan. This allowed the then secret language of Navajo to be used in developing an unbreakable code(6). Also, the Navajo Code contained 642 words or terms in their dictionary([10].)  By comparison the World War II-era Comanche Code Talkers only had 250 terms or 250 words and the primitive World War I era- Choctaw speaking experiment had only 20 terms or 20 words([11] ).  The Comanche Code Talkers served in Europe against the Third Reich ([12]).

Japanese code cracking efforts

A Japanese interrogator named Goon, interrogated a captured Navajo prisoner named Joe Kieyoomia (who had the survived the 1942 Bataan Death March) and came to the conclusion that the Code had something to do with the Navajo language([13]). Joe Kieyoomia, despite being brutally abused by his Japanese captors, never gave away any of the Navajo Code secrets(13). The Japanese Chief of Intelligence. Lieutenant General Seizo Arisue, said that while he was able to decipher the code used by the U.S. Army and the U.S.  Army Air Corps, he was never able to crack the Navajo Code ([14]). In the aftermath of World War II, the  Fuji Evening, a Tokyo newspaper, stated “If the Japanese Imperial Intelligence Team could have decoded the Navajo messages.. the history of the Pacific War might have turned out completely different”([15]). This shows the effectiveness in secrecy  surrounding the Navajo Code. 

The Navajo Code also had some important successes on the battlefields of the Pacific during World War II. During the Guadalcanal campaign, Navajo Code Talker Chester Nez and his friend Roy destroyed a Japanese machine gun position using the power of the Navajo Code to order an artillery strike to destroy it([16]). In the Battle of Iwo Jima, from February 1945 to March 1945, signal officer Major Howard Connor of the 5th Marine Division, said “Were it not for the Navajos, the Marines would never have taken Iwo Jima”(14). Signal officer Howard Conner had six Navajo Code Talkers with him and during the first two days of the battle of Iwo Jima from February 1945 they sent over 800 messages, all without error(14).  One of the final transmissions of World War II were American scientists’ observations of the August 9, 1945 atomic bombing of Nagasaki and it was sent back via the Navajo Code(15).

In retrospect

The Navajo Code had everlasting fame as a military code. This code that was developed for the Marine Corps served with success from 1942 to 1945.  The complex and thoroughly detailed nature of the Navajo Code made it perfect for military use and was different from other Native American codes. Except for a close call, the Code was never broken. The Navajo Code was truly unbreakable!

Now, read Daniel’s article on “Did World War Two Japanese Kamikaze Attacks have more Impact than Nazi V-2 Rockets?” here.

[1] Avila, Judith and Nez, Chester. Foreword by Bingaman, Jeff United States Senator from New Mexico. Code Talker: The first and only memoir by one  of the original Navajo code talkers of WWII.  New York: New York. Dutton Caliber. 2011. 93. 

[2] Avila, Judith and Nez, Chester. Forward by Bingaman, Jeff United States Senator from New Mexico. Code Talker: The first and only memoir by one of the original Navajo code talkers of WWII.  New York: New York. Dutton Caliber. 2011. 90. 

[3] Avila, Judith and Nez, Chester. Forward by Bingaman, Jeff United Sates Senator from New Mexico. Code Talker: The First and only memoir by one of the  original Navajo code talkers of WWII.  New York: New York. Dutton Caliber. 2011. 92. 

[4] Avila, Judith and Nez, Chester. Forward by Bingaman, Jeff United States Senator from New Mexico. Code Talker: The first and only memoir by one of the original Navajo code talkers of WWII. New York: New York. Dutton Caliber. 2011. 101-102. 

[5] Avila, Judith and Nez, Chester. Forward by Bingaman, Jeff United States Senator from New Mexico. Code Talker: The first and only memoir by one of the original Navajo code talkers of WWII.  New York: New York. Dutton Caliber. 2011. 109.

[6] Avila, Judith and Nez, Chester. Forward by Bingaman, Jeff United States Senator from New Mexico. Code Talker: The First and only memoir by one of the original Navajo code talkers of WWII. New York: New York. Dutton Caliber.  2011. 91. 

[7] Avila, Judith  Schiess and Nez, Chester. Forward by Bingaman, Jeff United States Senator from New Mexico. Code Talker: The first and only memoir by one of the original Navajo code talkers of WWII. New York: New York. Dutton Caliber. 2011.  91-92. 

[8] Navajo code talkers of World War II: Journey of Remembrance. Dreamscape-Contemporary Learning Systems. Starbright Media Corporation production. 2018. 

[9] “American Indian  Code Talkers, The National WWII Museum-New Orleans”.  December 12th, 2020. https://www.nationalww2museum.org/war/articles/american-indian-code-talkers . 

[10] Avila, Judith Schiess and Nez, Chester. Forward by Bingaman, Jeff, United States Senator from New Mexico. Code Talker: The first and  only memoir by one of the original Navajo code talkers. New York: New York. Dutton Caliber. 2011. 273-291. 

[11] Greenspan, Jesse. “How Native American Code Talkers Pioneered a  Type of Military Intelligence”. Updated:  November 11th, 2020. History Channel.  Accessed January 1st, 2021. https://www.history/com/news/world-war-is-native-american-code-talkers . 

[12] McIntyre, Cindy. “Comanche language helped win World War II”. Last Modified November 14th, 2017. United States Army. Accessed on January 3rd, 2021. https://www.army.mil/article/178195/comanche_language_helped_win_world_war_ii . 

[13] Avila, Judith Schiess and Nez, Chester.  Forward by Bingaman, Jeff, United States Senator from New Mexico. Code Talker: The first and only memoir by one of the original Navajo code talkers.  New York: New York. Dutton Caliber. 2011. 207-208. 

[14] “Navajo Code Talkers-World War II Fact Sheet, Naval History and Heritage Command”.  December  7th, 2020. https://www.history.navy.mil/research/library/online-reading-room/title-list-alphabetically/n/code-talkers.html . 

[15] Avila, Judith Schiess and Nez, Chester. Foreword by Bingaman, Jeff, United States Senator from New Mexico. Code Talker: The first and only memoir by one of the of the original code talkers. New York: New York. Dutton Caliber. 2011. 215. 

[16] Avila, Judith Schiess, and Nez, Chester. Forward by Bingaman, Jeff, United States Senator from New Mexico. Code Talker: The first and only memoir by one of the original Navajo code talkers. New York: New York. Dutton Caliber. 2011. 133. 

References

“American Indian Code Talkers, The National WWII Museum-New Orleans” December 12th, 2020. https://www.nationalww2museum.org/war/articles/american-indian-code-talkers.

Avila, Judith, and Nez, Chester. Foreword by Bingaman, Jeff, United States Senator from New Mexico. Code Talker: The First and only memoir by one of the original Navajo code talkers of WWII. New York: New York. Dutton Caliber. 2011. 

Greenspan, Jesse. “How Native American Code Talkers Pioneered a New Type of Military Intelligence”. History Channel.  Updated: November 11th, 2020. Accessed on January 1st, 2021. https://www.history/com/news/world-war-is-native-american-code-talkers.

McIntyre, Cindy. “Comanche language helped win World War II”. Last Modified November 14th, 2017. United States Army.Accessed January 3rd, 2021. https://www/army.mil/article/178195/comache_language_helped_win_world_war_ii

Navajo Code talkers of World War II: Journey of Remembrance. Dreamscape-Contemporary Learning Systems. Starbright Media Corporation. 2018.

“Navajo Code Talkers-World War II Fact Sheet, Naval History and Heritage Command”.  December 7th, 2020. https://www.history.navy.mil/research/library/online-reading-room/title-list-alphabetically/n/code-talkers.html

The 1665 Great Plague of London: Part 2 – Was Home Quarantine Worth it?

In 2020 and now 2021, a large number of citizens found themselves homebound. While the stay-at-home orders were a novel experience for most people, the isolation of individuals with a contagious disease has a long history. While it is true that many suffered inconvenience and the disruption of normal routines, the modern home is so well equipped we weren't lacking for much in the way of necessities and comforts. Additionally, those quarantined at home were able to venture outside to replenish supplies or through delivery is needed. It has not always been so easy. The worst outbreak of bubonic plague in early modern England took place in London in 1665. Considering this experience can give us pause to give thanks that we live in the early twenty-first century.

In part 2, Victor Gamma looks at the Great Plague of 1665 in London, how people often lived in cramped conditions in Plague houses, and whether in perspective home quarantine was worth it.

Two men discovering a dead woman in the street during the Great Plague of London, 1665. Wood engraving by J. Jellicoe. Source: Wellcome Trust, available here.

What were conditions like in plague houses? Typical plague homes ranged from modest to ramshackle. Those subject to home quarantine were middle class or poor because those with the means had fled the city before the worst of the outbreak. Middle class Londoners could afford a house on a major street. Under quarantine, the poor suffered greater tribulation because their houses were rather sparsely furnished and lacking in much that might make the quarantine tolerable. The parishes supported those in financial distress in time of quarantine. Households were listed as “chargeable” if they were dependent on the parish for support during the plague. This meant they could not afford the 4 pence that the parish charged per quarantined person per day. In one instance, the records of St. Martin’s show that 84% of individuals in infected houses were “chargeable.” Additionally, the plague increased the number of those financially dependent on parish assistance due to loss of income. 

Although the practice of shutting up houses helped stop the spread of disease, the environment inside these plague houses undermined the health of those confined. To compound their suffering, homes at that time had no bathrooms as we know them today. Even the homes of the very wealthy lacked a lavatory. The good health of the inhabitants would normally not last long. After so many weeks of being cooped up, depression and mental lethargy took hold. Fever would often follow, leading to full-on sickness. Although the flight of many doctors earlier in 1665 year made the pitifully weak health system even more ineffective, the Lord Mayor did direct a number of physicians to treat the poor.

Sometimes the supply of food in shut up homes began to dwindle. Lacking preservatives, the food they had left began to rot. Its odor would permeate the air, along with the smell of putrefying water. Conditions were mostly cramped. Unlike the wealthy, the typical quarantined family lacked the space to segregate themselves. The air in that hot, humid summer of 1665, would be stifling in the shuttered, darkened structure. Without light and air, some began losing their grip on reality. In many plague houses one or more people were dead or dying. The mental state of everyone in the home ranged from mild fear to pathological terror. Those still alive knew what awaited them if they became infected: headaches, fever, vomiting, painful swellings on the neck, armpits and groin (buboes), blisters and bruises, coughing up blood and likely death. The atmosphere was rank with the odor emanating from one or more plague-ridden corpses. Even when they had been removed the smell of death and decay would linger. With each fresh outbreak of the epidemic the twenty-day quarantines were extended. Since this was a regular occurrence, the quarantine could go on indefinitely or until the entire household was dead. 

Some families held desperate councils and took matters into their own hands. Many an imprisoned person crept up into the second story or attic, waited until the guard was not looking, carefully lowered a rope around the watchman's neck and pulled. They would demand he open the door - or else. If the guard proved stubborn they might keep pulling until he either changed his mind or lost consciousness. Those that lacked the nerve for such drastic measures tried hacking a hole in the back of the house. They were, after all, made only of plaster and narrow strips of wood. Some escaped through the neighbor’s yard using this method. Others threw messages tied to a block of wood or tile to a friend in the street, pleading with them to drug the guard. Those that lacked the wherewithal for any of these actions were often condemned to watch as their loved ones died, one by one. 

Pushback

Protests against the practice did occur. The level of distress of those home-quarantined is indicated by the number of violations recorded in court sessions. Offenses included illegally allowing inhabitants to leave their house or continuing to carry on business despite being quarantined. The government narrative held that its pandemic-control measures were necessary for the safety of the entire community. Parallel to this ran a largely popular counter-narrative that saw the home quarantines as a heartless punishment forced upon the poor that did little to stop the disease from spreading. For one thing, government policies strictly forbade the visiting of the sick by anyone other than plague officials. This severely disrupted the normal ties and customs of kinship and charity. Poet George Wither wrote of this:

That man was banished from the public sight Imprisoned in his house both day and night. As one that meant the Citie to betray And (to compel that his unwelcome guest Should keep within) his dore was crost and blest And for that purpose, at the door did stand An armed watchman, strengthened by command.

Partly to blame was the flight of the well-to-do, which took place that spring. The unintended consequence was that the overwhelming majority of victims were the poor and middle class, making it appear that government disease-control policies were aimed at the lower classes. An anonymous pamphlet called Plague Houses blasted the practice of home quarantine as "this dismal likeness of Hell, contrived by the College of Physicians." Even some doctors condemned the practice. It was, declared one physician, "Abhorrent to Religion and Humanity even in the Opinion of a Mohometan." Many argued that science simply did not back up the practice. One physician noted that "the tedious confinement of sick and well together" merely made the healthy "an easier prey to the devouring Enemy." Some sensible souls dared suggest that it would be more effective to separate the healthy from the infected. These voices of reason were drowned out by a chorus of fear. In 1604 Thomas Dekker wrote “Whole households and whole streets are strickent/the sick do die, the sound do sicken.”

A return to normality

The unpopular orders sometimes led to violence. For example, in 1637 a shoemaker named John Clarke refused to obey an order toleave his house and go to a “pestfield.” The justice of the peace sent bearers (those who carried corpses to burial) and other plague workers to his house in order to tell Clarke and his household to vacate their home. They had orders to force the family out if they persisted in their noncompliance. Riots even took place against shutting up the sick. In April 1665, as the shutting up of infected houses was just beginning, a report was given to the authorities of a case alarming enough to warrant a hearing and discussion in the presence of King Charles II. The report stated that infected houses at St. Giles were subject to a “ryot” in which the Cross and paper affixed to the door were taken off.  The door was opened “in a riotous manner.” The inhabitants were let and “permitted to goe abroad into the street promiscuously.” The Lord Chief Justice was ordered to investigate and prosecute the offenders severely for committing a crime “of soe dangerous a consequence.” The “ryot” proved to be an exception, though, for as the plague spread, fear of infection accomplished what the authorities could not and most people avoided the sick. Nonetheless, such incidents reinforced the popular perception of home quarantine as a punitive measure.

Fortunately, after the fading of summer’s heat, the crisis subsided. With the cooler weather of autumn the first ray of hope appeared. The Mortality Bills for September registered the first significant decline in fatalities. With some fluctuation the decline continued into the winter. By October the diarist Pepys could write; “... there are great hopes of a great decrease this week; God send it!” Pepys’ optimism was soon realized. By the end of November London began its painful return to normal conditions.

Quarantine in perspective

Was the home-quarantine worth the cost? The consensus is that the home quarantines may have helped to stop the spread of plague to an extent. According to Daniel Defoe in his Journal of the Plague Year, wherever the practice was instituted “it was with good success; for in several streets where the plague visited broke out, upon strict guarding the houses that were infected, and taking care to bury those that died immediately after they were known to be dead, the plague ceased in those streets.” Although Defoe based his Journal on the recollections of survivors, many contemporaries disagreed, blaming the high mortality rate and personal suffering on the practice of home quarantine. One problem was the social nature of households. As mentioned already, the members of a quarantined home of middle or poor social class lacked the space to avoid congregating together throughout the day. This insured the spread of infection. The strict approach of the government also unwittingly spread infections. One order made it illegal to so much as sit at the door of a quarantined house. The punishment was that they “be shutt up with ye rest of ye infected persons.” In this way, many healthy individuals fell victim to the plague. 

Conversely, under the restrictions, ordinary life and commerce suffered devastating effects. Almost any street one walked down was eerily silent. Trade declined so dramatically that thievery and begging ran rampant. On average one to three people died in infected homes. All too often entire households perished, rising to a peak in the summer. By the time the plague had run its course as many as 100,000 had died in London, representing at least 15% of the population.

The current Covid-19 stay at home orders have been credited with helping stop the spread of the virus. As in 1665, it has triggered a recession and caused considerable suffering for those who lost jobs or endured financial loss. Despite this, most home-quarantined people in 2020 did not complain of anything approaching the hellish experience of 1665. However restrictive we have found our current on-going quarantine, a look back at times past can be a cause to give thanks. 

Now, if you want to learn about Tudor England, you can read Victor’s series on Henry VIII’s divorce of Catherine of Aragon here.

References

Anonymous The Shutting Up of Infected Houses (pamphlet), 1665. 

Antiquarian Repertory. London, Printed and published for E. Jeffery, 1807-09.

Defoe, Daniel Journal of the Plague Year, first published March, 1722. 

Gregory, Charles William, Public Opinion and Records, Published: The Author, 1856. Digitized: July 4, 2006.

Leaser, James, Plague and Fire. New York: McGraw Hill, 1961.

The National Archives Education Service: The Great Plague 1665 -1666 How did London respond to it? (Educational Material) 

Newman, Kira L. S. Dolby. “Shutt Up: Bubonic Plague and Quarantine in Early Modern England.” Journal of Social History Vol. 45, No.3. (Spring 2012), pp. 809-834. 

Pepys, Samuel, Diary.

Certaine necessary directions, as well for the cure of the plague, as for preventing the infection: with many easie medicines of small charge, very profitable to his Majesties subjects. London: Robert Barder and John Bill (By the Royal College of Physicians, London, 1636.

Visiting families who Escaped the Nazis: Life as a British National Health Service Worker

From escaping burning hospitals to visiting families who escaped from the Nazis, John Rooney has met extraordinary people throughout his career with the British National Health Service (NHS). Starting as a student at 19 years old, he still works there over 50 years later. Here, Alice Cullinane explains John Rooney’s story.

An engraving of Ely House in London, including St. Etheldreda's chapel, which was visited by John Rooney to find a patient in more recent times. Engraving by William Henry Prior and based on a 1772 drawing.

John lived in the grounds of Friern Hospital, a psychiatric hospital close to Colney Hatch in London. During an outbreak of flames, he had to run into the burning hospital, leaving his two young children at home. He recalls the experience being "really surreal…the corridor was just roaring in flames." People were "just wandering around in daze", with there being no organized plan. Fires in the hospital often were caused by patients smoking in places they should not be. However, the fire’s cause was vague due to beliefs of “an arsonist in that part of London.” Friern Hospital had the longest corridor in Europe and contained in-mates such as Aaron Kosminski, Jack the Ripper suspect,  alongside railway rapist and killer John Duffy. (1) The Guardian newspaper published an article which blasted the British mental hospital in 1965. The grimness of buildings, the size of the wards, the problem with staff recruitment and the pressure of work were all criticized. Due to multiple reasons, it was decided in 1989 that the hospital should close, with patients reintegrated into the community where possible. (2)

The NHS worker remembers going to a central London church to find a patient. "The church had a crypt below, and it was like another world - completely dimly lit, and the whole floor was just a sea of people." The church was St. Etheldreda's Church in Holborn, London, the oldest Catholic Church in England. In 1925, the Royal Commission on Historical Monuments scheduled St Etheldreda’s as an ancient monument, and worthy of preservation. During the German Bombing Blitz, St Etheldreda’s was hit by many explosions, with the WW2 bomb damage taking seven years to repair. (3) John remembers everybody in the crypt was lying down, “with alcohol, drug problems.”

Eerie events and Nazi Germany Survivors 

John also worked at Brookwood Hospital in Surrey, south-east England, known as the second ‘county Asylum.’ While working at the hospital, he was sent through the fields, to “help them get a dead patient out of the canal.” The hospital had a dairy, cobblers, sewage farm and chapel, located near the Basingstoke Canal. John remembers the patients face, “covered in green weed” and as a late teenage student, found the experience “very dramatic…like something out a horror film.” Patients were admitted to the hospital for various reasons; including Ethel Mary Short, taken in due to 'puberty' and Mary Jane Perry, due to a 'disappointment in love.' (4)

Alongside eerie events, the 72-year-old also visited patients with surprising and shocking stories. “There was an elderly Jewish lady who lived in one of the really upmarket areas of London. She escaped the Nazis' because her husband was tall and blonde - even though her husband was Jewish." The stereotype of a Jews’ appearance was ‘red hair’, as ‘red hair is commonly a recessive trait’, and more represented in ‘endogamous populations.’ (5) The Nazis’ saw Jews as a danger to the ‘Aryan race’, and were to be ‘removed from Central Europe, through expulsion, enslavement, starvation and extermination.’ (6) The couple, fortunately, escaped their death from the Nazis. “When they got stopped at the border, they (were) asked if they were Jewish. Her husband said to the guard, ‘do I look like a Jew?’, and they let them through, and they lived.” There were many methods to help the immigration of Jews, such as ‘Kindertransport’, which rescued nearly 10 000 children from Nazi Germany. The British government allowed Jewish children to immigrate without visas, but sadly, the children were forced to leave their parents. (7) 

John has also noticed the staffing change in the NHS, “people nowadays say they are short-staffed, but they have no idea what really short-staffed is." John was by himself in a ward with 126 patients; however maintaining a positive attitude, he said, "you just do what you can." John loves that "there are so many different things you can do…the NHS is very interesting." He has a great passion working for the NHS, finding it “satisfying because I believe in what I do.” From working in the hospital that housed Jack the Ripper, to visiting those who lived to tell their phenomenal story, John has many more tales to tell!

Now, you read Alice’s article about growing up in post World War Two Liverpool here.

References

1-     Wikipedia- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friern_Hospital#National_Health_Service

2-     https://ezitis.myzen.co.uk/friern.html

3-     http://www.stetheldreda.com/index.php/history-of-st-etheldredas/

4-     https://www.getsurrey.co.uk/news/health/historical-archives-surrey-mental-hospital-9382714

5-     https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stereotypes_of_Jews#Physical_features

6-     https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_race

7-     https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jews_escaping_from_German-occupied_Europe_to_the_United_Kingdom

The Melungeons: Legends of Southern Appalachia

Different regions of America have always included many different groups of people. As America has become more diverse in the last century, a question can be posed: Has America always had multiracial groups of people? An unexpected answer to this quandary exists in the southern United States in the Appalachian Mountains with the Melungeons. Roy Williams explains.

An image entitled "A typical malungeon", published in August 1890 in the Nashville Sunday American. It is based on a drawing by Will Allen Dromgoole, available here.

Within the Appalachian Mountains, from the mountainous regions of Tennessee and Virginia, to parts of Kentucky, there has traditionally been a group of people known as the Melungeons. The origins and ethnicity of the Melungeons are a point of debate; however there are multiple documents and cultural similarities that can be used to determine who the Melungeons most likely are.

The debate regarding the origin of the Melungeon people is an old one and can be seen in the testimony of Captain Lewis Jarvis regarding his encounters with Melungeon people in his writing in the Hancock County News in 1903, “Much has been said and written about the inhabitants of Newman’s Ridge and Blackwater in Hancock County, Tenn. They have been derisively dubbed with the name “Melungeons” by the local white people who have lived here with them. It is not a traditional name or tribe of Indians. Some have said these people were here when the white people first explored this country. Others say they are a lost tribe of Indians having no date of their existence here, traditionally or otherwise.” (Jarvis 1903)

Origins

The term Melungeon is a point of debate having similar relations in multiple languages but no definitive origin. In French, the word Mélange refers to mixture giving the context of a mixed racial group. Older words such as Melan in Greek refer to one who has dark skin. The Turkish also have a term known as melun that can mean cursed soul. Whether these words have any relation to the modern term Melungeon is a point of debate and can only further stoke the mystery of who the Melungeon people of Appalachia are. 

Physical descriptions of the Melungeon people generally characterize them as dark olive-skinned people with straight dark hair and a large variety of eye colors. These descriptions and their status as a mysterious group of people who largely stayed isolated among themselves have sparked many theories as to the possible ethnicity of the Melungeon people. Many have theorized that the Melungeons were mixed race children of Native American and European descent. Still some point to the Melungeons as having Middle Eastern ancestry explaining their darker appearance, describing them as closer to Turkish people. Others have pointed to similarities in the African American community that can be compared to the physical attributes of the Melungeon people. In this regard, a theory has been postulated that points to the Jamestown hypothesis. The Jamestown hypothesis argues that the Melungeon people are the result of unions between European and African indentured servants that lived in close proximity. These unions created children who were neither African or European and therefore became social rejects of the larger European society. With the issues of social isolation and racial prejudice, these mixed-race people moved to the Appalachian Mountains to live in isolation. 

Another theory argues that the Melungeons are neither Native American nor African American but the descendants of shipwrecked Portuguese sailors who began living in the Appalachian Mountains. Another theory that also points to a European origin is the concept that the Melungeons were the result of Desoto’s soldiers’ sexual encounters with Native American women during their travels through the Appalachian Mountains. These theories fail to recognize the recent DNA evidence which presents the Melungeons as a largely multi-racial people with ethnic differences between families. Recent DNA evidence points to ethnic origins ranging from Native American, African, European, and Middle Eastern heritages. The improvements in genetic testing have allowed scholars and genealogists a greater understanding in their knowledge about the Melungeon people.

Melungeons in History

While the current genealogical research allows scholars a greater understanding of who the Melungeon people are, there are still many complex narratives revolving around their history. While the Melungeons were certainly a multi-racial group of people they retained many rights that were not normally prevalent at the time in the United States. Most Melungeons had the right to vote as well as the right to military service. Most Melungeon records show that people who were known as Melungeon were ‘Free Persons of Color’ or FPCs. In this regard, Melungeons retained enough European ancestry to still participate in many institutions of the United States but still be treated with racial scorn and remain isolated from broader social acceptance. While the Melungeon people faced social isolation due to their non-white heritage, they rarely faced legal penalties for it. However, in 1924 the Virginia Racial Integrity Act did legally designate anyone in the state of Virginia as White or not, requiring doctors to fill out identification forms of race. As stated in The Racial Integrity “Act, 1. Be it enacted by the General Assembly of Virginia, That the State Registrar of Vital Statistics may as soon as practicable after the taking effect of this act, prepare a form whereon the racial composition of any individual, as Caucasian, negro, Mongolian, American Indian, Asiatic Indian, Malay, or any mixture thereof, or any other non-Caucasic strains, and if there be any mixture, then the racial composition of the parents and other ancestors, in so far as ascertainable, so as to show in what generation such mixture occurred, may be certified by such individual, which form shall be known as a registration certificate.”(State of Virginia 1924) The Virginia Racial Integrity Act also made the intermarrying of races, known as miscegenation, a felony, directly targeting multiracial communities.

In 2005 the Melungeon DNA project was started to understand the question of the genetic origin of the Melungeon people. The study consisted of testing multiple people who had confirmed Melungeon ancestors. The results pointed to a conclusion that male ancestors had African genetic origins and female ancestors had European genetic origins. Only one tested subject had Native American genetic origins. While the Melungeon DNA project certainly proves that the Melungeon people were a multiracial ethnic group it fails to account for the many other people who are descended from Melungeon ancestry but remain ignorant to their history. With greater testing and advances in DNA research a broader conclusion will be established in understanding some of the missing links in the Melungeon people’s genetic history.

Forgotten culture?

Oddly enough, much of the isolated culture of the Melungeon people has largely been forgotten due to assimilation in broader American society. Most of the people who would be considered Melungeon would never have used that term in identifying one another as it could have amounted to a racial slur used by suspicious neighbors pointing out the oddity of their dark skinned enigmatic mountain cohabitants. The technological revolution of the 1990s has allowed many who had forgotten their heritage to rediscover the truth of their origins and boldly remember their Melungeon ancestors. While DNA evidence may try to pin down and determine the exact genetic makeup of the Melungeon people that remain, a definitive conclusion can never be made as the Melungeon group of people seemed to include a broad swath of multiracial people who represented a group that worked as a catch all for those that weren’t White and desired to live in isolation away from the social failures of a society that valued racial purity above community. The research going forward in understanding the mystery of the Melungeon people will only be answered in full by their descendants who have forgotten their ancestry.

Finally, some common Melungeon last names include: Bowling (Bolin), Bunch, Chavis (Chavez), Collins, Epps, Evans, Fields, Francisco, Gibson, Gill, Goins, Goodman, Minor, Mise, Moore, Mullins, Osborn(e), Phipps, Reeves (Rives, Rieves, Reeves, Reaves), Ridley (Riddle), Rodrigues, Stowers, Vanover, Williams, and Wise.

Now, you can read Roy’s past article on the Armenian Genocide of 1914-23 here.

Bibliography

http://www.historical-melungeons.com/jarvis.html

http://melungeon.org/frequently-asked-questions-about-melungeons/

https://dla.acaweb.org/digital/search/searchterm/%20Melungeons/mode/exact

http://jackgoins.blogspot.com/

https://www.familytreedna.com/groups/coremelungeon/about/background

http://freepages.rootsweb.com/~appalachian/genealogy/melungeons/THE_GRAYSVILLE_MELUNGEONS.txt

http://www.freeafricanamericans.com/

https://dla.acaweb.org/digital/collection/King43/id/91

https://www.encyclopediavirginia.org/racial_integrity_laws_of_the_1920s

A Maverick in 1920s London: Kate Meyrick

The booming 1920s were a decade of great change in many countries. Following the pain of World War I, many experienced happier times. Here, Tom Daly explains the story of a woman who owned nightclubs in 1920s London that were attended by some of the most famous in society.

Kate Meyrick in the 1920s. Available here.

The ‘roaring ‘20s’ is sometimes seen as a uniquely American phenomenon, while Europe emerged gingerly from a catastrophic war that had torn the continent apart. Yet the glamour of New York and Chicago was still matched by some of Europe’s more prosperous cities in the 1920s. Paris was home to a lively jazz scene, Berlin developed a reputation as a wonderfully decadent and sexually liberated city, and London became a hub for hedonism and indulgence among disillusioned war veterans and the more optimistic generation that came after them. At the center of London’s nightlife was a small Irish woman who ran numerous successful nightclubs, flaunted her wealth and celebrity in front of an incensed British Home Secretary, and who was mother to eight children. Her name was Kate Meyrick.

Meyrick was unabashedly outrageous. After living a relatively privileged life until her marriage fell apart in 1919, she threw herself in to the murky world of London’s emerging nightclub scene and established herself as its Queen. Unbothered by scrapes with the law, fiercely protective of her workers and immensely proud of her establishments, she basked in the resentment of the British establishment yet still managed to maintain her family’s place at the top of society – two of her daughters would marry into the peerage. ‘Ma Meyrick’ was ambitious, flamboyant and engaging. In 1920s London, that made her exactly the type of person who could make a success of themselves.

Background

Kate Meyrick was born Kate Evelyn Nason on August 7, 1875 in Dun Laoghaire, which was then called Kingstown, near Dublin. Her father, John, was a wealthy doctor but tragically died when Kate was just one. Her mother, Sarah, found a second husband in a Lancashire clergyman and took her two children with her to England, but died herself when Kate was just seven. Now orphans, Kate and her older sister Ethel moved back to Dublin to brought up by their grandmother. She attended Alexandra College as a teenager and showed early signs of her disregard for normal conventions, claiming that she was the first woman to ride a bike in Dublin. 

Kate grew into a petite young woman with a slender frame and striking dark features, and when she was 19 she married Ferdinand Meyrick, who like her father was a doctor. The couple moved to Hampshire in southern England and settled into a comfortable existence where they could afford to send all of their eight children to elite private schools. Luckily for the Meyricks their sons were not old enough to fight in the First World War but it was still a time of turbulence for Kate, who filed for divorce from Ferdinand in 1910 but was reconciled with him until 1919. Though they separated in 1919, they never actually got divorced.

Rise in London

With three sons at Harrow and three daughters at Roedean, two of Britain’s most elite schools, the newly single Meyrick was facing an uphill battle to fund her children’s education. So, she moved to London and set about amassing her own fortune. In April 1919 she bought a share in Dalton’s, a nightclub in Leicester Square owned by George Dalton Murray, who quickly spotted her potential and employed Meyrick as the club’s manager. Under her management Dalton’s developed a reputation as a brothel with a more friendly touch for troubled young war veterans seeking sex and companionship. This was exactly the case Meyrick made when the club was raided by police in 1920, as she protested in court that the women she employed offered comfort to disillusioned and sometimes disfigured men who had returned from war. Her protests did not work, and she was forced to pay a fine and close the club.

If Meyrick was upset at the closing of Dalton’s, she didn’t show it – she was moving on to bigger things. In 1921 she opened the 43 club in Soho, which was to become one of 1920s London’s most notorious spots. Amongst a backdrop of jazz music and a never-ending supply of alcohol and drugs, it was in the 43 club that aristocracy mixed with the newly wealthy, where royalty mixed with up-and-coming gangsters. The club was frequented by royalty from all over Europe, as well as writers, politicians and even members of the IRA, who headed to the 43 for a night of celebration in November 1921 after stealing a huge haul of munitions from British troops in London. Welcoming this type of clientele did have its risks, but the Meyrick’s diminutive appearance disguised her phenomenal ability to control even the most violent men. Meyrick didn’t care who you were or what your background was – as long as you had a thick wallet and pristine clothes, you were welcome in her club.

Meyrick founded several other nightclubs in the decade, including the Silver Slipper, the Manhattan, and the Folies Bergeres, but it was the 43 that remained the jewel in her crown. Not only did she accumulate a fortune but she also became a celebrity, known affectionately as ‘Ma Meyrick’ and facilitating one of her daughters’ marriage to a Baron and the marriage of another daughter to an Earl.

Legal Troubles

Meyrick’s first brush with the law came in 1924, when she was sentenced to six months in prison for selling alcohol in the 43 club without a license. The sentence was protested by King Ferdinand of Romania and Crown Prince Gustaf of Sweden, showing the array of glamorous customers she could boast, but the pleas on her behalf fell on deaf ears and she was forced to serve her sentence. In all, she would serve five prison sentences over the next ten years, mostly for licensing offenses. 

That year, a new Home Secretary was appointed by Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin. Sir William Joynson-Hicks was an austere man who, like many people of his generation who were children of the Victorian age, was worried about the morals of the country in the decadent 1920s. He developed an obsession with the nightclubs that had sprung up across London and was determined to harass them as far as the law would permit, but Kate Meyrick’s clubs, despite the handful of short sentences she served for licensing offenses, always seemed to be out of his reach. In March 1928, he finally found out why.

Sergeant George Goddard of the Metropolitan police had a modest salary but managed to live in a huge townhouse in London and drive two expensive cars. He also happened to be the man who was responsible for keeping an eye on the 43 club. Suspicious, Joynson-Hicks ordered a raid on the club without informing Goddard, and finally found what he was looking for. In 1929 Meyrick was convicted of bribing a police officer and sentenced to 15 months hard labor.

Final years and death

Meyrick was released from her sentence early in 1930, but the world she returned to was very different to the one she had left. While she was in prison, the Wall Street Crash had tanked the global economy and effectively ended London’s nightclub scene for the time being. Struggling to attract customers and facing a police force that had been cleaned up in the fallout of the Goddard affair, Meyrick got herself in more trouble and returned to prison in 1931. During this sentence she started writing her memoirs, Secrets of the 43, but it was banned almost as soon as it was published in 1933. Too many powerful people had a distinct interest in not having their nightclub antics in the 1920s being common knowledge.  

Not that this censorship ever bothered Meyrick – she was already dead. Her years of fast living had left her frail and she contracted pneumonia during her final stint in prison. She died in London on January 19, 1933 at the age of 57 and was buried in Kensal Rise, London. Her funeral was attended by all of her children and even her estranged husband, who appeared inconsolable during the service.

The story of Kate Meyrick was not a rags-to-riches story, yet it was still one of a woman defying the odds. A single mother in her mid-40s, she could have been forgiven for feeling sorry for herself and devoting her energy to her children. She did devote her energy to her children in a way – she always maintained that paying school fees was the only reason she had gone into the nightclub business – but she had certainly made something of herself in the process. She was shrewd and disdainful of convention, perfectly encapsulating the era she operated in, and a character so colorful and extraordinary as her deserves to be remembered.

Now, you can also read Tom’s articles on the Princess Alice Disaster on London’s River Thames here, 14th century French female pirate Jeanne de Clisson here, and why Tom loves history here.

Finally, read more from Tom at the Ministry of History here.

The 1950s Christmas: The Christmas that Became the Future

There have been few periods in human history that have brought about as major changes as the mid-20th century. A big change that was brought about during this time was how we have come to celebrate the Christmas holiday. Here, Amanda L. Walton looks at a 1950s Christmas and its parallels to a modern Christmas.

President John F. Kennedy and his wife Jackie at the White House in December 1962. Many of the Christmas practices of the 1960s - and to the present day - came from the 1950s.

The 1950s were a time of pride within the American culture. The space race was starting, and World War II had just ended. Families were prospering in ways that had not been possible before. There was enough food on the tables, people could afford cozy neat homes in residential neighborhoods, shopping became a popular pastime of American housewives, and middle-class families were able to live better than ever before (or since). 

The extra money that people had brought about a new level of consumerism that marked the second transitional change in the way that we celebrate Christmas. In her book, Midcentury Christmas: Holiday Fads, Fancies, and Fun from 1945 to 1970, Sarah Archer argues that the mid-20th century was the second time that Christmas has changed. She argues that first it was the Victorian Era with the myth of Santa Claus and then the mid-20th century which created the desire for the cozy Christmas that is still enjoyed today.

A Look at Mid-20th Century Christmas Traditions

Many of the Christmas traditions that continue to be practiced today originated in the mid-20th century. Below are a few that are notable.

Christmas Ornaments 

The mass production of Christmas ornaments was first seen with Shiny Brite (and yes, I have some of these from a local thrift store score!). These are popular collector items today and something that as a collector myself I have always been excited to obtain. During the 1930s all of the ornaments that were purchased were hand blown in Germany. The process of mass production allowed for ornaments to be affordable and obtainable by all families. 

The Tinsel Tree

I have to admit that I have a weakness for tinsel trees. My husband bought me one for our third Christmas in our new home. We plan to purchase a new one complete with a spinning base (ours only has the color wheel and a recent Rainbow Light that we picked up at an antique shop for $10) when we purchase our dream mid-20th century home that we are currently in the market for. The tinsel tree offered a space-age adaptation to an old classic and has since become the main defining decoration of the mid-20th century.

Crafting was Popular

Magazines at the time show all of the unique crafts that women could make within their own homes. A lot of the crafts featured used aluminum foil as it was being heavily produced post-war. Women were encouraged to grab their roll of aluminum foil through advertisements and craft tutorials in magazines. 

The Mass Consumerism of the Mid-20th Century

One of the things that changed drastically during the mid-20th century was consumerism. This is especially true when it comes to the Christmas season. Advertisements flooded newspapers and magazines with all of the latest gadgets that men, women, and children needed for the holiday.

Men were encouraged to spoil their wives with a practical gift that would make their life easier like the folding table and chairs or serving carts from Cosco, as well as new gadgets like electric knives or the Dishmaster (a unique contraption that was made to help make doing dishes easier). One unique ad that ran was for the Westinghouse Sun Lamp in the LIFE Magazine published on December 8, 1952. The ad shows a very tanned woman with her husband and a pale jealous wife in the in the background with the caption “Give June a Tan for Christmas.”

Women were encouraged to buy men gifts that would help them relax after their hard day at work, like El Producto Cigars and small three band portable radios. Advertisements also showed men who were overly excited receiving clothing, often clothes that were appropriate for the office. (This shows the desire that people had to obtain office jobs as they were considered to be the ultimate positions for people.)

Parents were encouraged to buy children the latest toys whether they be dolls or science kits. Younger children would squeal with delight for a rocking horse and Tinker Toys. Little girls dreamed of Barbies, Russian nesting dolls, Easy Bake Ovens, and Troll dolls. Little boys loved Lego, Hot Wheels, toy soldiers, and frisbees. All children became excited over Silly Putty, Slinky, Play-doh, and Mr. Potato Head. Family games also became popular, with gifts including Tripoley, Sorry, Scrabble, Monopoly, and Twister.

The middle class was booming at this time. Factory workers and industrial laborers could afford to live in suburban neighborhoods in newly built homes. They could afford to spend extra money on the luxuries that made life easier and more interesting. This led to the desire to provide things and experiences for their children that their own parents (raising them during the Great Depression) could not have done. Entertaining was also becoming popular at this time.

The Mid-20th Century Menu

One of the things that always shocks me are the recipes that I see featured in mid-20th century cookbooks. Although admittedly I am a picky eater, I have found that many of these foods seem unappetizing on all levels. Dishes that involve savory gelatin or extra layers of mayonnaise seem unhealthy as well. One notable advertisement featured an Oscar Meyer tree which was a cone with broccoli and assorted cocktail weenies, hot dogs, and other processed meat items decorating the tree.

Families began opening their homes to family and friends during the holiday as well. The mid-20th century was the beginning of holiday parties and the desire to entertain one another. This led to some interesting party friendly recipes that were meant to wow your guests. Holiday dinners were being created to offer a full family experience. At the time, food culture was also being written about and talked about in ways that people no longer look at it.

In many forms of media, including newspapers and magazines, Christmas dinners were advertised, and menus were created. Food Timeline posted a number of holiday menus and posted them on their website. The 1947 White House Christmas dinner was a simple menu that was posted in The New York Times. The journalist was sure to point out that the foods that were used followed the National Food Conservation Program, except the bread and butter. The meal included bread rolls, butter, curled celery, assorted olives, roast turkey, chestnut dressing, giblet gravy, cranberry jelly, mashed potatoes, asparagus, plum pudding, molded ring with fruit, candy, nuts, and coffee.

As a mid-20th century historian, I have become obsessed with the time period. Many of the Christmas décor items and traditions that I celebrate were from this time period. I am sure that you have seen some of your traditions or favorite celebrations of Christmas included as well.

What do you think of a 1950s Christmas? Let us know below.

Now you can read Amanda’s article on US Supreme Court Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg here.

References

“19 Mid-Century Modern Christmas Décor Ideas,” Curated Interior. https://curatedinterior.com/mid-century-modern-christmas-decor/

“26 Hilarious Christmas Ads from LIFE Magazine in the 1950s,” Vintage Everyday. December 8, 2018. https://www.vintag.es/2018/12/1950s-life-magazine-chirstmas-ads.html.

Africca Sanson. “9 Retro Holiday Recipes That Need to Make a Comeback,” Country Living. December 4, 2017. https://www.countryliving.como/food-drinks/g5028/vintage-holiday-recipes/.

Allison Meier. “Christmas at Midcentury, When Aluminum Trees Replaced Victorian Evergreens,” Hyper Allergic. December 12, 2016. https://hyperallergic.com/346592/midcentury-Christmas/.

Anna Stockwell. “A Retro-Classic Christmas Dinner Menu,” Epicurious. December 4, 2017. https://epicurious.com/expert-advice/a-retro-classic-christmas-dinner-menu-article.

Audrey W. (Arcadia Staff). “The Hidden History of 7 Popular Toys from the 20th Century,” Arcadia Publishing.https://www.arcadiapublishing.com/Navigation/Community/Arcadia-and-THP-Blog/December-2018/The-Hidden-History-of-7-Popular-Toys-from-the-20th.

Cathy Salter. “Memoirs are Made for Misty Mornings,” The Columbia Daily Tribune. January 9, 2017. https://coulmbiatribune.com/890e7cda-1427-541c-a198-7e4cb4904b46.html.

Courtney Iseman. “What Christmas Looked Like (And Tasted!) Like the Year You Were Born,” Delish. December 16, 2019. https://www.delish.com/food/g30196945/what-christmas-looked-like-the-year-you-were-born/.

Emily VanDerWerff. “Christmas in the Space Age: Looking Back at the Wild, Weird Designs of Mid-20th Century Holidays.” Vox. November 24, 2017. https://www.vox.com/culture/2016/11/25/13697888/christmas-decorations-vintage-midcentury-interview.

“Historic American Christmas Dinner Menus,” Food Timeline. www.foodtimeline.org/christmasmenu.html.

Jenny James. “How to Nail Your Mid Century Christmas Décor,” Atomic Ranch. December 3, 2018. https://www.atomic-ranrch.com/architecture-design/house-tours/how-to-nail-your-mid-century-decor/.

Jenny Xie. “5 Fond Memories of Mid Century Christmas Design and Décor,” Curbed. December 12, 2016. https://archive.currbed.com/2016/12/21/14027930/midcentury-christmas-decor-design.

Joy Wallace Dickinson. “Space Age Glitter Lit Up Midcentury Christmas,” Orlando Sentinal. December 18, 2016. https://www.orlandosentinal.com/entertainment/os-joy-wallace-dickinson01218-2016127-col.

Laurie Wilson. “24 Vintage Christmas Dinner Recipes for Partying Like It’s 1899,” Eat This. November 19, 2018. https://www.eatthis.com/vintage-christmas-dinner-dishes-dont-eat-anymore/.

Linda Ferguson. “Mid-20th Century Christmas Decorations, Part 1,” Cool Old Stuff. http://www.coololdstuff.com/christmas1.html.

Linda Ferguson. “Mid-20th Century Christmas Decorations, Part 2,” Cool Old Stuff. http://www.coololdstuff.com/christmas2.html.

Lisa Kaminski. “What Christmas Looked Like the Year You Were Born,” Taste of Home. https://www.tasteofhome.com/collection/what-christmas-looked-like-the-year-you-were-born/.

“Most Popular Toys of the Last 100 Years,” Forbes. December 2, 2005. https://www.forbes.com/2005/12/01/mattel-hasbro-toys-cx_lh_1202feat_ls.html?sh=36057274625d.

Sarah Archer. Midcentury Christmas: Holiday Fads, Fancies, and Fun from 1945-1970. Woodstock, Vermont: The Countryman Press, 2016.

Skyler Hanrath. “These Were the Most Popular Toys in Each Decade of the 20th Century,” Ranker. March 8, 2018. https://www.ranker.com/list/most-popular-toys-in-the-20th-century/skyler-hanrath.

Tara Besore. “Here’s Everything You Need for a Mid-Century Modern Christmas,” Hammer and a Headband. November 28. 2018. https://www.hammerandaheadband.com/a-mid-century-modern-style-christmas/.

Taylor Murphy. “60 Vintage Christmas Dishes Worth Trying Today,” Taste of Home. October 10, 2019. https://tasteofhome.com/collection/vintage-christmas-recipes/.