Ancestor worship has a long history in China. In fact it goes back millennia to the time of Yangshao culture. Here, Khadija Tauseef explains the importance of this and how it evolved over time in ancient China.
Confucius, painted by Wu Daozi.
“Ancestors
Hear my plea,
Help me not to make a fool of me,
And to not uproot my family tree,
Keep my father standing tall”
- An extract from the movie, Mulan.
The Disney classic allows us a glimpse into the tradition of ancestor worship that has been around for centuries. Mulan’s father is seen sitting before the ancestral tablets, praying for Mulan. Throughout the film there are continuous references to the Fa ancestors, who even appear; showing that they are watching over Mulan and her family. They try to help their descendants, ensuring that no dishonor was brought on to the family.
China has a grand tradition of ancestral worship that has been carried forward through the ages. However, the term ‘ancestor worship’ was coined by a British philosopher and sociologist Herbert Spencer in 1885. It is based on the belief that the souls of the deceased have power and influence of the lives of the living. How did this ancient practice start and what sort of an impact does it have on the people?
Celestial Beginnings
The concept of ancestor worship can find its roots within Chinese folk tradition. It emerged from religious beliefs about the afterlife and that part of the soul continues to reside on the earth. The earliest mention regarding ancestor worship dates from Yangshao society (from c. 5000 BCE). Unfortunately, due to the lack of writing from the period, we do not know much about Neolithic religious practices. All that changed with the coming of the Shang dynasty (1600-1046 BCE), who brought about the existence of writing. Oracle bones or jiaguwen discovered in archaeological tombs, date as far back as 1250 BCE, giving us our first glimpse into ancient beliefs.
The major focus of the Shang was towards the Shangdi (the Supreme Being), who was believed to be the link between the heavenly beings and the people. At the time ancestor worship also existed; many believed that the success of crops and the health of the family was connected to the veneration of ancestors. If the ancestors were happy then they would provide their family with wealth and prosperity. However, if they were displeased then great tragedies would befall the family. In addition, it was widely believed that the ancestors visited with Shangdi, therefore it became even more important to make sure the deceased were happy.
Dynasty Shift
The Shang were soon replaced by the Zhou dynasty, one of China’s longest lasting ancient dynasties. Lasting from 1046 BCE to 256 BCE, this dynasty played host to a great cultural, artistic and intellectual renaissance. During this period the concept of Yin (feminine) and Yang (masculine) was developed as “an earthly reflection of heavenly harmony”. This concept helped develop the idea of ancestral worship further by helping explain how the soul of the deceased is affected.
The belief was that the soul of every human consists of two parts, the Po (relating to yin energy and the grave) and the Hun (relating to yang energy and ancestral tablets). Therefore, when a person dies, their soul would be split in two - the Po goes to the afterlife to be reborn and the Hun remains on earth, close to the ancestral tablet. This shows why many believe that the ancestors remain among the living and keep a watch on them - if the family honors them and provides them with appropriate sacrifices the family will have a prosperous and wealthy life. Festivals were often held to celebrate not just the gods but also the ancestors. The people would perform rituals in which they would recite hymns, glorifying the gods and ancestors.
“The drums are put in place, and their beats summon the spirits. The descendants call upon their ancestors to arrive, the sound of flutes and stone chimes adding to the noise, until “bells and drums fill the air / and the dancers seem in flight / our visitors appear.”” (Clements, 2019: 43).
These celebrations were often led by the shamans or wu. Shamans were thought of as a conduit for communicating with the ancestors. They conducted the funerary ceremonies and other events that required their presence.
Unfortunately, not all those who die are able to take their place among the pantheon of ancestors. According to ancient texts each human has their own predestined span of life and dying before that time as a result of murder, war, suicide, a natural disaster or an epidemic, means they cannot become ancestors. These souls returned to haunt the living, and were known as Ligui (pernicious ghost). These Ligui were believed to be the cause of numerous illnesses and misfortunes. The only way to deal with them was through exorcisms performed by shamans.
Throughout the Zhou dynasty, ancestors were highly revered, not just among the common people. Even the emperors built grand shrines for their royal ancestors, ensuring that they would watch over them from the heavens and secure their reigns.
Confucian Influence
After the decline of the Zhou dynasty, many religious practices came under attack. China was divided, with warring states fighting to exert dominance. It was in this age of violence and war that Confucius was born. In order to find a solution for the turmoil of his age, Confucius looked to the practices and knowledge of the past. In particular, he looked to the era of the early Zhou kings and their peaceful rule.
Confucius found that Zhou society had ancient rights, customs and etiquette that brought people together and ensured peace. Therefore, Confucius wanted to bring back these practices so that the people would be able to live harmoniously. One important right was the ancestral rights that were necessary for keeping harmony between the human world and the cosmos.
Professor Michael Nylan explains the importance of the ancestors thus:
“When we talk about many of the rights, what we are talking about is ‘blood sacrifice’. Offerings of blood and wine are offered to the ancestors and the gods in heaven. The ancestors live in heaven and become themselves gods in the afterlife.”
The reimagining of the ancestors in a sense brings them back to life with each offering. Confucius emphasizes the importance of family and the connection to the past, and this helps embody the belief in the ancestors - because honoring them helps us maintain a connection with relatives or loved ones that have passed on and keeps us rooted in the past. Confucius’ teaching greatly influenced the people of China and heralded a new era of ancestor worship that has lasted to this day.
Conclusion
Even today, people have tablets dedicated to their deceased relatives and provide offerings to sustain them. Some of these practices may seem outdated and out of place within our modern life but if one feels connected with the past and carries it with them, then these traditions will continue to flourish. Personally, just the thought of having a loved one close by and being able to share precious moments with them, sounds like a perfect dream.
What do think of ancestor worship in China? Let us know below.
Bibliography
1) Gombrich, E.R. A little History of the World. Yale University Press: London, 2005.
2) Oliveto, Joe. Chinese Ancestor Worship Explained: History, Traditions & More. https://www.joincake.com/blog/chinese-ancestor-worship/
3) Cartwright, Mark. Ancestor Worship in Ancient China. https://member.ancient.eu/article/1132/ancestor-worship-in-ancient-china/
4) Clements, Jonathan. A Brief History of China. Tuttle Publishing: Singapore, 2019.
5) Ancestor Worship. https://family.jrank.org/pages/86/Ancestor-Worship.html
6) Ancestral Worship in China. https://family.jrank.org/pages/84/Ancestor-Worship-Ancestor-Worship-in-China.html
7) Ghosts in Chinese Religion. http://www.religionfacts.com/chinese-religion/ghosts
8) Lagerwey, John and Marc Kalinowski. Early Chinese Religion Part One: Shang through Han (1250BCE – 220AD). Brill Publishing; Netherlands, 2008.
