Throughout Roman history, few figures capture the imagination quite like Cincinnatus (c. 519 BC to c. 430 BC). Often hailed as the embodiment of Roman virtue, this legendary figure has been compared to the likes of George Washington and immortalized in the naming of the city of Cincinnati.
But who was Cincinnatus, really? A revered Roman general, a simple farmer thrust into power, or a character of mythology more than history?
Tom Curley explains.
Cincinnatus abandons the Plough to dictate Laws to Rome. By Juan Antonio de Ribera, circa 1806.
The Life of Cincinnatus
Cincinnatus, born in 519 BC, emerged from a notable patrician family during the final years of Rome's monarchical system. This era marked the transition to what would become the Roman Republic. At this time, Rome was more a minor city-state than the colossal empire it would later become.
Cincinnatus rose to prominence as a consul amidst a period of social unrest. The lower plebeian class actively sought more rights, challenging the near-absolute control of the ruling patrician class. Contrary to romantic visions of a perfect republic, this period was marked by intense, sometimes violent, socio-political struggles.
During these conflicts, Cincinnatus faced personal loss with the death of his son. This profound event led him to retire from public life, seeking solace in the more spartan existence of farm life.
However, his retreat from the political arena was not the end of his story. It was merely a prelude to his legendary role later in Roman history.
The First Dictatorship
The crisis began when the Aequi, an eastern neighbor of Rome, violated a treaty, leading to inevitable war. Rome's response was swift but perilous. Two Roman consuls led armies against the Aequi, but one was quickly besieged and trapped.
In this desperate situation, the Roman Senate turned to Cincinnatus. They appointed him as dictator, a term familiar today but with a different meaning in ancient Rome. In the Roman context, a dictatorship was a temporary measure, granting absolute power to one individual during times of dire crisis. This power was not meant to be permanent but was a response to emergencies requiring swift and decisive leadership.
When senators approached Cincinnatus with the news of his appointment, he was ploughing his farm. He asked them, "Is everything all right?" they replied that they hoped "it might turn out well for both him and his country."
Cincinnatus acted promptly. He called a public meeting, summoning every able-bodied military man to join a massive army. Leading this force, Cincinnatus successfully besieged the Aequi. Notably, he chose not to slaughter them but instead subjected them to the humiliation of passing under the Roman yoke, a symbol of defeat.
His triumph was remarkable, but even more extraordinary was what followed. After just 15 days in power, having resolved the crisis, Cincinnatus relinquished his dictatorial powers. He returned to his farm, displaying a rare example of humility and restraint.
The Second Dictatorship
Cincinnatus' retirement was interrupted 19 years later, marking his return to power under dramatic circumstances. At the age of 80, he was once again called upon to assume the role of a dictator. This time, the crisis revolved around Spurius Maelius, a plebeian accused of aspiring to be king, a serious threat to the power patricians of the Roman Republic.
Cincinnatus' response was swift and decisive. He organized the patricians to confront this would-be king. The situation escalated quickly, resulting in Spurius being driven into flight and subsequently killed in the ensuing chaos.
Remarkably, Cincinnatus' commitment to the ideals of the Republic remained steadfast. After just 21 days as dictator, having neutralized the threat to the Republic, he once again relinquished his absolute power and returned to his farm.
The Legend of Cincinnatus
The story of Cincinnatus is a symbol of Roman virtue and integrity. In classical Rome, there was a deep nostalgia for the 'good old days' of the Republic, where Romans were seen as honest, virtuous, and selfless. The ideal Roman was often portrayed as a farmer-soldier, embodying simplicity, bravery, and dedication to the state. Cincinnatus was the epitome of this ideal.
His life contrasted sharply with the later, more famous figures of the Roman Republic and Empire, such as Julius Caesar, Mark Antony, and Augustus. These powerful and ambitious leaders sought to entrench power around themselves, moving away from the virtues of the early Republic.
The American Cincinnatus
Cincinnatus' legend found new life after the American Revolutionary War. The founders of the United States consciously sought to emulate the Roman Republic's virtues in shaping their new nation.
Cincinnatus became a role model, particularly in the figure of George Washington. Washington's actions after the Revolutionary War – relinquishing command of the army, refusing to establish a monarchy, and retiring after two terms as President – mirrored the virtues attributed to Cincinnatus.
How Much Do We Really Know About Cincinnatus?
The life of Cincinnatus, as fascinating as it is, raises a critical question: how much of it is actually true?
The early Roman Republic's history, particularly the time of Cincinnatus, suffers from a lack of written sources. Most of what we know was written much later, leading to uncertainties about the accuracy of these accounts.
Moralizing History
Cincinnatus was likely a real historical figure. However, our primary source of information about him is the historian Livy, who wrote centuries after Cincinnatus' time. Livy is known for infusing his historical writing with moral lessons at the expense of strict historical accuracy. This approach makes it challenging to distinguish between fact and moralistic embellishment.
For example, Livy describes Cincinnatus' victory over the Aequi in 458 BC as a "spectacular triumph." However, he then contradicts this by noting that the Aequi continued to be a threat, attacking Rome again in 457 BC and 455 BC. Such inconsistencies cast doubt on the scale and impact of Cincinnatus' victories.
The interplay of sparse evidence, embellishments over time, and inherent contradictions in the historical narrative is what makes ancient history so intriguing. Figures such as Cincinnatus occupy a unique space, straddling both mythology and history.
Does the absolute truth really matter? The exact details of Cincinnatus' life may forever remain shrouded in mystery. However, the impact and influence of such figures are undeniably real and tangible. Their stories have shaped cultures, inspired leaders, and fostered ideals that have transcended generations.
Tom Curley is the founder of HistoryHogs.com.
