The Life of One of the 20th Century’s Great Writers: George Orwell

George Orwell, or Eric Blair as he was officially known, was one of the greatest writers of the 20th century. His novels, most famous of which are 1984 and Animal Farm, still remain popular and very relevant. Here, Douglas Reid tells us about Orwell’s life and the books he wrote.

A digitally colorised picture of George Orwell, c. 1940. Source Cassowary Colorizations, available here.

There never was an English writer named George Orwell, at least a legal one. The man the world knows as George Orwell was Eric Blair. His first book, “Down and Out in Paris and London”, a mostly accurate account of his tramping days, was his first attempt at a book-length literary product. The young writer was concerned that the book would flop and reflect poorly on his nascent essay-writing career. Orwell suggested that the editor use a pen name. He offered for consideration:

George Moore

George Orwell

H. Lewis Allways

The editor, Victor Gollancz, chose the name in the middle and a literary star was born. Gollancz, in later years, would state he chose the middle option because the Orwell River flows near the Blair family home in Southwold. Orwell was 31 at the time and for the rest of his life the writer would respond to either name whether in person or in correspondence. To his early friends he would always be Eric. To those who entered his life at a later date he was George. In later years friends suggested he should have his name legally changed. His standard response – “No thanks – that means going to see a lawyer and that puts me off.”

Eric Blair was the son of a British bureaucrat who, as a retiree, would shift to a domicile in Southwold, Suffolk, England. This would be young Eric’s home until going to Eton school as a scholarship boy. Tellingly, Eric was the only Etonian of his year to eschew both Oxford and Cambridge universities. Instead, to the wild surmise of family and friends, he signed on for a five-year term with the British Imperial Police. That experience led to the fictional “Burmese Days”, clearly the work of a novice. His other early work, “Down and Out in Paris and London”, is significantly better and this is no surprise. It is almost totally autobiographical, and although written before “Burmese Days” was published later. Although both were published a decade and a half earlier than “Nineteen Eighty-Four” the early directional signposts are unmistakable. 

Orwell in Myanmar and early writing

Orwell soon became aware of the unspoken central task he was expected to perform – keep the native people of Burma (Myanmar) in line. For the recalcitrant native the brutal overseer, or the policeman himself, was waiting in the shadows. “On Shooting an Elephant”, one of Orwell’s best known essays, provides fresh insight for the sensitive man of just whom is the controller and whom the controlled:

 “And it was at this moment, as I stood there with the rifle in my hands, that I first grasped the hollowness, the futility of the white man’s dominion in the East. Here was I, the white man with his gun, standing in front of the unarmed native crowd – seemingly the leading actor of the piece but in reality I was only an absurd puppet pushed to and fro by the will of those yellow faces behind. I perceived at this moment that when the white man turns tyrant it is his own freedom that he destroys.”

Although this gloomy episode and its companion piece, “A Hanging,” serve as early direction pointers on the Road to Barnhill, Orwell does provide a comic event in “Down and Out” worth re-telling. Orwell’s intention was to play the part of a down and outer. He could play the part consummately well but he was at a loss to voice the part. He had decided he wanted to experience some time in jail. Accordingly, he got himself good and swished and staggered down the street in full view of a policeman. But when the gendarme heard Orwell’s plumy Etonian tones he stopped up and he became immediately gentle and solicitous – “Sir, are you a gentleman?” And just like that the game was up.

Pogo

Orwell’s early prose concludes with his lightweight novel. “A Clergyman’s Daughter” which deals with none of the salient themes of his major works. These themes may be identified as politics and the English language, the increasing threat of the emergence of the police state, and the eradication of history. At this juncture it seems right to introduce Pogo. Pogo illustrates the distance Orwell is now leaving his contemporaries behind.

Pogo was the eponymous name of a comic strip produced by Al Capp decades ago. Pogo was an alligator who lived in a swamp. And Pogo was a kind of rural philosopher who ruled the denizens of the swamp with wit and wisdom. In the panel I have in mind Pogo is depicted standing on his tail and with one hand shielding his eyes. He is peering into the distance and he is saying:

I have seen the enemy. He is coming. And he is us.

On the trail of Orwell

I arrived one Monday morning at the University College, London, early, not much past 7 am. The only persons in sight were two public school boys wearing their crests and colors. I needed directions so I approached the boys, Alphonse and Dudley.

“Say, could you tell me where the Orwell Archives are at?” Dudley snorted as he surveyed me – t-shirt, jeans and sneakers, a provincial if he ever saw one … ”Around here, my good man we don’t end a sentence with a preposition.” Well, wasn’t I the chastised one? So, I asked again. “Say, could you direct me to where the Orwell Archives are at, horse’s ass?” Actually that is only an approximation of what I actually said but I have to get this by the editor.

Later on the same trip I was able to trace the bookshop where Orwell worked part-time after teaching school all day. He still found time to work on his new novel – book number four –“ Coming Up For Air”. It is with this book that Orwell begins to address his concerns about government control in its citizen’s lives. His protagonist is George Bowling, a middle-class insurance salesman. Bowling is tolerably happy with his marriage as well as his job but he resents a tightening pressure from both without and within. Then, predictably, he breaks away when opportunity presents itself.

Bowling finds his way to the racecourse and backs a long odds winner. His first thought is to share his windfall with his wife. But the road to freedom leads out of town and Bowling, almost without thought, breaks away from his standard, homogenized life. He checks his rear-view mirror anxiously half-expecting a car full of freedom police chasing him…

THERE HE GOES… AFTER HIM… STREAMLINE HIM… FASTER… GET HIM.

George Bowling speeds along until he senses freedom. He veers into a side road and pulls up at a long-lost magical spot where a country bridge shades deep pools of shadowed water. And Orwell remembers. 

Orwell spent many happy childhood hours here. They watched the great fish swirl and flash in the depths. Those great lunker trout and dace still made his heart flutter. Memories. Fishing was always magic for Orwell. George Bowling was by far the nearest to his creator. Even their names reflect the connection. They are both named George And Orwell and Bowling are not far from being anagrams of one another. Orwell was always alive to prose that was animated and syntax that was as simple as was necessary to convey the intended idea.

Orwell as journalist

Orwell was a journalist and an essayist before he was a recognized novelist. There is a hard-to-find four-volume edition of his collected essays, letters and journalism – over 2,000 pages. On my set I have scribbled marginalia everywhere but the most memorable is the essay “Politics and the English Language.” Every first year student in whichever department or faculty should be encouraged to grasp its essentials. Otherwise they may end up writing and communicating in the way of Professor Harold Laski, a contemporary of Orwell’s:

“I am not indeed, sure whether it is not true to say that the Milton who once seemed not unlike a seventeenth century Shelly had not become, out of an experience ever more bitter in each year, more alien to the founder of that Jesuit sect which nothing could induce him to tolerate.” 

Tender minds should be exposed to strong, direct, and clear language. For instance Orwell would have them influenced by this famous passage in Ecclesiastes:

“I returned, and saw under the sun that the race is not to the swift, nor the battle to the strong, neither yet bread to the wise, nor yet riches to men of understanding, nor yet favour to men of skill, but time and chance happeneth to them all”.

49 words, 60 syllables nobly expressed.

Here is the same passage written in Newspeak, the language in the book “Nineteen Eighty-Four”:

Objective consideration of contemporary phenomena compels the conclusion that success or failure in competitive activities exhibits no tendency to be commensurate with innate capacity but that a considerable element of the unpredictable must invariably be taken into account.”

38 words, 90 syllables, inflated language.

In total Orwell produced nine books – six novels (counting “Animal Farm”, which technically is an apologue). Also three non-fictional narratives. Yet almost everyone only identifies and names two – “Nineteen eighty-four” and “Animal Farm.” “The Spanish Civil War” is less cited, while “The Road to Wigan Pier” ennobles a poor class in England and Wales – miners.

George Orwell was a driven man with few vocations or hobbies. One was wood-working or cabinet-making. According to his friends he tackled both with more enthusiasm than skill. His other pursuit, fishing, was the one that gave him a measure of success and great enjoyment. He was dedicated to his craft, but not to his health.

The Golden Country

Orwell lived in London for a long time but as he grew older he began to forge, in the smithy of his brain, a place that is tranquil and where the living is healthful. He gives his imaginary Utopia a name – the Golden Country. Perhaps he ought to have made his plans of escape sooner. Five years earlier he had contracted tuberculosis, first in one lung, then in both. In the spring of 1946 he left London to seek the Golden Country, wherever that may be.

In time Orwell was successful, The Golden Country turned out to be Barnhill, a deserted white-washed vacated country home on the remote Island of Jura in the Western Hebrides of Scotland. By the autumn of 1947 Orwell had settled to writing the first draft of what would be his Magnum Opus – “Nineteen Eighty-Four.”

The Golden Country was close to Orwell’s vision of lakes and streams where the surrounding atmosphere was pristine and the waters are heavy with great lunker fish that swirl and swish in the depths. Wish me a rainbow indeed. The thing about Barnhill is even on this remote isle it was difficult to reach. A ferry service was available intermittently at the extreme south end of Jura while Barnhill was 19 miles away in the extreme and almost uninhabited north. A traveller to reach Barnhill had to beg a bumpy ride for nine miles by jeep. How to negotiate the remaining seven miles was open to suggestions. 

Barnhill would not look special to you or me but it was Mecca for Orwell. Barnhill is a fairly spacious deserted house with a rickety porch. Inside there are four bedrooms, three down one up. Orwell chose the hilly one upstairs for his bedroom-writing room. Old Barnhill hinted at a Gothic existence. Orwell settled and wrote a first draft of 1984. Orwell sought a peaceful life but he was not a hermit. He gave detailed travelling instructions so friends could visit. They came from London by train, ferryboat, land rover, motorbike, and sometimes on foot. On the down side Orwell’s health was an increasing problem. He had developed tuberculosis in both lungs. 

Orwell’s friends thought he was mad to live through a Jura winter with Barnhill as his prime shelter, but the writer defends his choice thusly:

 “Its funny, you always think Scotland must be cold. The West part is not colder than England and the Islands I should think decidedly warmer on average.”

Sadly, after the completion of his great novel the author’s health began its final descent. Visitors still made the trek from London but by now he knew he was in a race with death. Orwell prevailed but early in the new year he left his beloved Jura. He was now coughing up copious amounts of blood, he left Scotland reluctantly and was taken to University College Hospital.

He declined rapidly with not a soul nearby. In the early hours of January 10th, 1950, George Orwell – Eric Blair - died.

There were books strewn about his bed. Leaning against a green wall, all forlorn stood his fishing rod.

What do you think of George Orwell? Let us know below.

Now you can read Douglas’ article on Thomas Paine, the man whose book may have led to the American Revolution, here, and the American heroine Abigail Adams here.

Why did France Never have a Queen as Ruler?

France had a monarchy in some form for over 1,000-years - from the days of the Frankish dynasties to the 19th century. However, there was never a Queen monarch that ruled the country. Here, Melissa Barndon considers why France never had a Queen.

Marie Antoinette, Queen Consort of France from 1774 to 1792.

For as long as there have been queens in France, there has never been a female monarch. No daughters of the King, the princesses of royal blood, have succeeded to the French crown and ruled in their own right.

But wait, you say, what about Marie Antoinette? Wasn’t she a French queen?

Yes, but she was a Queen consort. Most French kings had wives, whose sole duty really was to produce an heir (and a spare if they were lucky).

In many European kingdoms, women could inherit power on the same terms as men. This was the case in England, the kingdom of Navarre, the kingdom of Naples, Hungary, Poland, and in Scandinavian countries.  Isabella I, Queen of Castille, and Ferdinand of Aragon governed Spain together from 1479-1504. So why could women not govern in France?

Salic Law

Many people would respond to that question with ‘Because of Salic Law’. Salic Law is a legal code from the sixth and seventh centuries in which laws regarding property and penalties were compiled for the first time as a written code. It is called Salic Law because many of the laws referred to the Salian Franks, a territory in what is today largely northern France, the Netherlands and Belgium. King Clovis, who is believed to have begun compiling the Salic Laws, was the first to unite all the Frankish tribes and is considered the first king of France. 

One article of Salic Law prohibited women from laying claim to ‘familial lands’, or terra salia. It did not restrict women from inheriting property; it only stopped them from inheriting Salic land which had usually been granted to men by Frankish kings or nobles in exchange for their servitude. Women could not provide the same service as men at the time, so they were not allowed to have control of these lands.

Crises of Succession

In 1316 there was a crisis of succession for the French throne. There had not been a crisis such as this before, as the French crown had always passed from father to son. Louis X, or Louis the Stubborn, died in that year leaving behind no male heir to take the crown. He had a daughter, Joan, from his first marriage, and his current wife, Clementia, was pregnant. The maternal uncle of the 4- year old Joan entered into negotiations with Philip, the brother of Louis X.

It was agreed that if the as yet unborn child was a boy, Philip would rule as the Regent. If the baby was a girl, Philip would act as Regent for Joan until she was 12 years old, after which she would renounce her right to the throne. This is important, as it recognizes that females had the right to rule France.    

The baby was a little boy. The jubilation did not last very long, however, as he died after only 5 days (thus becoming John the Posthumous). This particular outcome had not been considered, so Philip had himself crowned as king, Philip V. There was some opposition to his usurpation of the throne in place of the rightful heir, but an official declaration made clear that women were not permitted to inherit the kingdom of France. Significantly, there was no mention of Salic Law.  

Philip V, also known as Philip the Tall, died in 1322, leaving no sons. The crown passed to his brother, Charles IV, with little opposition.  

When Charles IV passed on very shortly afterwards, in 1328, it led to another crisis of succession. There were no sons and no brothers to inherit the throne. However, there was a sister.  

Isabella of France was the sister of Philip V and Charles IV, and the wife of Edward II, King of England. She claimed the French crown belonged to her son, Edward III, who was a direct grandson of Philip IV. However, the nobles declared that women could not pass on a right to rule they did not have, citing the two previous coronations. They declared the new king to be Philip of Valois, a first cousin and therefore the next indirect male heir, who was crowned Philip VI.  

The historical records of these events make no mention whatsoever of Salic Law.

The rediscovery of Salic Law

Salic Law was ‘rediscovered’ in 1358 by a monk in the library of the Monastery of Saint-Denis. One hundred years later a treatise called La loi Salique, première loi des Français, women and their descendants were officially excluded from inheriting the French crown because of their unstable nature and their inability to make war or to hold an office.  

Prior to this convenient discovery of Salic Law, the dismissal of female rights to the throne reflected the general situation of women in medieval Europe. Women were legally dependent on their fathers, husbands or brothers, and required to submit and obey. Theirs was the domestic sphere, where they were responsible for child-bearing and child-rearing. The public sphere belonged to men – justice, government and war was their domain. While in some regions they could inherit land and wield power in the absence of a male heir, generally women could not underwrite contracts, testaments or legal articles; they had to be drafted with their husband’s or father’s consent.  

Greek philosopher Aristotle had much to say on the natural weakness of women, and his ideas were also ‘rediscovered’ in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Aristotle believed women were born with a weaker body and little wisdom; while men were naturally the opposite with a strong physique and a developed intellect. According to the bible, women had been born of Adam to be his companion and to bear his children. Eve had given in to temptation when she took the apple in the Garden of Eden, and therefore all women were never to be trusted with matters of importance as they were too easily tempted. They must remain subjugated. A twelfth-century abbot warned men that a woman’s anger makes females “poisonous animals ... [T]he poison of asps and dragons is more curable and less dangerous to men than the familiarity of women.” A popular and common theme for church sermons was the sins of females – they were liars, temptresses, gossips, lustful, proud and backstabbing. A proverb of the time stated: “Woman is an evil that man cannot avoid”. 

Females were not without their virtues. A virtuous woman was kind, gentle and compassionate. She was dedicated to her children and to managing the household. It was these virtues which ‘allowed’ women to act as Regent for her son if he were to become the heir while still a minor. It was assumed the queen regent would always act out of love by keeping at heart the interests of her late husband and her child. Charles VI wrote in an ordonnance giving his wife Isabeau of Bavaria the duty of governing his heirs, with “written reason and natural instinct, a mother has the most tender love and the most gentle heart towards her children, and is more diligent in protecting and nourishing them affectionately than any other person, even those next of kin, and for this [the mother] must be preferred to any other.”

Women as Regents

Being a queen regent was one of few opportunities for the wife of a French king to gain power. From 1350 to 1500, we see some queens ruling in the place of their husbands who had become mentally ill or were absent at war. Philip VI, whom as we saw above had gained the French throne by usurping his cousin’s daughters, trusted his wife, Joan of Burgundy, more than he did his courtiers. In 1338, faced with war against England, Philip VI designated his wife as regent during his lifetime with full powers in government, public finance, and justice if he were occupied elsewhere. According to Philip VI, his wife “was raised with him and must fall with him; who better to entrust with the dynastic heritage?”

Isabeau of Bavaria held an unprecedented position for a queen of France because of the attacks of insanity suffered by Charles VI and his subsequent descent into mental illness. In 1402, Isabeau’s powers were extended to act in place of the king when he was unfit to do so. It was confirmed she held “power, authority and special instruction to appease all debates, discords, dissensions and divisions” that existed now or erupted in the future.

There have been many great French queens – Eleanor of Aquitaine, Anne of Bretagne, Catherine de’ Medici, to name just a few. All were raised in noble families, educated, more than capable of running their kingdoms as well as they ran their households, while producing heirs at the same time. But they were constrained by the same laws and restrictions placed on almost all women throughout history. However, they found their niche, whether it be a ceremonial role in the royal court, a nurturing role as Queen mother, or a political role as regent. In the early fourteenth century, chronicler Jean le Bel wrote “The kingdom of France is so noble that it must not go to a female by succession”. The French queens may not have been allowed to officially wear the crown, but they left their legacy in a myriad of other ways.  

What do you think of the roles of Queens in French history? Let us know below.

References

Gaude-Ferragu, Murielle, Queenship in Medieval France, 1300-1500, Palgrave Macmillan US, 2016.

Morrison, Susan Signe, A Medieval Woman's Companion : Women's Lives in the European Middle Ages, Oxbow Books, Limited, 2015. 

Queenship, Gender, and Reputation in the Medieval and Early Modern West, 1060-1600, edited by Zita Eva Rohr, and Lisa Benz, Springer International Publishing AG, 2016. 

The Incredible Story of a 14th Century French Female Pirate: The Lioness of Brittany, Jeanne de Clisson

Jeanne de Clisson’s husband was killed following a sham trial in 1343; however, this betrayal by the French nobility led Jeanne to take extraordinary action. Here, Tom Daly explains how her lust for revenge led her to become one of history’s most famous female pirates.

You can also read Tom’s article on the Princess Alice Disaster on London’s River Thames here.

The Lioness of Brittany, Jeanne de Clisson.

On August 2nd, 1343, a large crowd gathered at Les Halles, a market place in Paris, to witness a gruesome sight. Several men who were suspected of plotting with the English to fight against the French king were being executed, following sham trials in which the verdict was never in doubt. Among the men was the handsome and charismatic nobleman Olivier de Clisson, who had fought for years to defend the northern region of Brittany from the English and who adamantly protested his innocence until his very last moment. His protests were ignored by those who mattered, and his last glimpse of this earth was a sneering group of nobles who had gathered in the summer sun to watch his beheading. 

De Clisson was gone, but the threat from his family lived on. Within days, news of his trial and execution reached his wife, Jeanne. Theirs had been a happy marriage and the distraught Jeanne turned her anguish into rage, swearing vengeance on any allies of the French king. For the next few years, she would stalk the English channel with a small pirate fleet and ruthlessly attack any French vessels she came across, personally beheading any noblemen she caught but always leaving a handful of survivors to flee and tell their horrifying tale. Fierce, determined and skilful, Jeanne de Clisson struck fear into the very heart of the French establishment, and even managed to retire peacefully after she felt she had achieved her revenge. History has a few examples of successful female pirates but most of them came from desperately poor backgrounds and fought their way up, motivated by wealth and glamour. Jeanne de Clisson, a woman of noble birth, was motivated purely by revenge and bloodlust. It made her a very dangerous woman indeed.

Background

Jeanne was born into a wealthy noble family in northern France in around 1300. When she was 12 she married her first husband, with whom she would have two children, but it was her second marriage in which she would find most happiness. After the death of her first husband, Jeanne married Olivier de Clisson, a nobleman from Brittany, in northern France. Theirs was an arranged marriage but Jeanne and Olivier did genuinely love each other, and they had five children together. Olivier was a dashing warrior who fought bravely to repel the regular attacks from the English, who often sailed across the English Channel and attempted to gain a foothold in France. 

Olivier was loyal to the French king, Philip VI, but at the start of the 1340s a combination of panic and political manoeuvring saw his loyalty questioned. After a few French defeats fingers started to be pointed and blame started to shift around, and Charles de Bois, a powerful nobleman who had the ear of the King Philip, saw an opportunity to take control of Olivier de Clisson’s lands in Brittany. So it was that in 1343 Philip took de Bois’ advice and had de Clisson arrested for treason. A sham trial was held in Paris and de Clisson, along with a handful of other nobles who had the misfortune of being blamed for France’s recent defeats, found himself having a date with the king’s swordsman on August 2nd.

Jeanne’s revenge

News reached Jeanne a few days later, and she was devastated. However, within a week her anguish had turned to rage and she decided to channel her anger into something productive – she would have revenge on King Philip and Charles de Bois. As told by Joanna Gillan, Jeanne swiftly sold off her and her husband’s lands and used the money to purchase a small fleet of ships, manned by mercenary seaman and fighters. To add to the terror she intended to inflict on her victims, she painted her ships black and installed blood red sails, earning her fleet the title of ‘the black fleet.’ She then set off into the English Channel, and waited for her prey. 

Within weeks they had their first victims – the crew of a small French vessel sailing under the flag of the French king. The small ship stood no chance of either outrunning of outgunning Jeanne de Clisson’s fleet, and most of her crew were ruthlessly slaughtered, with Jeanne herself enthusiastically helping her men in their grim deed. As was to become her trademark, she spared the lives of a handful of the French crew and dropped them off in a small raft near the French coast, telling them to return home and tell their king who had butchered their colleagues. This they duly did, and so began Jeanne de Clisson’s reign of terror.

Before long, most of Europe knew who she was. Allying herself with the English, she pursued any French ships – even stopping ships flying under different flags to check that they were not transporting Frenchmen – and ordered the decapitation of any she found (with the exception, of course, of the lucky few she chose to allow to go home and tell the tale). She insisted that she personally behead any Frenchman of noble birth, as she perceived that it was the noble class who had abandoned her family and stitched up her husband (of course, she was mostly correct in this perception). She never did manage to get her hands on King Philip or Charles de Bois, but the carnage the ‘Lioness of Brittany’, as she became known, caused for the French government ensured that she achieved a degree of revenge. Her mission continued even after Philip’s death in 1350, as she continued to pursue French ships with unrelenting venom – her rage was fully focused on the entire French establishment rather than just the king.

Final years

Still, her vengeful marine crusade could not last forever. Maybe her rage subsided, maybe she was wary of losing the support of her men, or maybe she just fancied retiring. Whatever her reason, Jeanne decided she had done enough by 1356. Retiring initially to England, she married for a third time to an advisor to the English king, Edward III. By 1359 she was back in France, where she died peacefully that year. 

Jeanne de Clisson never did manage to kill King Philip or Charles de Bois (who died in 1364) as revenge for their role in her husband’s death. However, her pursuit of that revenge ensured that she caused untold damage to their causes and subjects, and further ensured that she earned a reputation as one of history’s most fearsome women. She was hero to some, a murderous wretch to others, perhaps somewhere in between the two for most, but ultimately as long as she was feared Jeanne de Clisson probably didn’t care what people thought about her. 

What do you think of the life of Jeanne de Clisson? Let us know below.

Now, read more from Tom at the Ministry of History here. 

Do Franklin D. Roosevelt’s Handling of Issues of Race show he is not the ‘Ideal Democrat’?

Franklin Delano Roosevelt was president of the USA from 1933 to 1945. He led the country out of the Great Depression and into World War Two. But, was he the ideal Democrat? Here, Donna Catapano argues that while his economic policies suggest he is, his social policies suggest otherwise - notably on issues of race.

Franklin D. Roosevelt meeting a Japanese delegation in the White House in 1933. During World War Two, Japanese Americans would be interned under Roosevelt’s presidency. Picture source: Harris & Ewing, available here.

Franklin Roosevelt is often looked at today by people as the “ideal Democrat”; the person who shaped the present-day Democratic Party. Many of those people, including educators, discuss this turning point in history when Roosevelt “made” what the Democrat is today.  When Roosevelt won the Presidential Election in 1932 by a landslide against Republican Herbert Hoover, the Democratic Party was introduced to a new level of government involvement. Even though his economic ideologies would still be considered relevant to Democrats today, his social ideologies would not.  His dismissal of the social issues of the 1930s and 1940s caused a ripple effect that we are still feeling in 2020. Roosevelt’s social principles, including those regarding lynching, racial profiling and discrimination within his New Deal programs, contradicts his status as the “ideal Democrat.”

As the years went on, the “Democrat” as we know it today, who is one who typically is in favor of federal government spending for public programs, associated those beginnings with FDR. Therefore, people typically describe Roosevelt as the “ideal Democrat”. However, one can argue that in 2020, Roosevelt would not be deemed that way. In his 12 years as president, he took many actions that today might fall elsewhere on the political spectrum.  Although he took several actions (and inactions) that might raise further questioning, three stand out.

1.     His refusal to sign a federal anti-lynching bill 

Between the years 1882 and 1968, more than 3,500 African Americans were murdered by white mobs. At the time, almost none of them were arrested and/or convicted for their brutal crimes. What emerged was an anti-lynching movement, whose participants demanded government action to stop these hate crimes. The extent to which Roosevelt spoke out against lynching was a fireside chat on December 6, 1933, when he briefly discussed the “vile form of collective murder -- lynch law-- which has broken out in our midst anew”. He went on to very briefly condemn the issue, stating: “We know that it is murder, and a deliberate and definite disobedience of the Commandment, ‘Thou shalt not kill’. We do not excuse those in high places or in low who condone lynch law.”  Twenty-eight African Americans were lynched the same year he gave this 1933 fireside chat.  However, First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt spoke out against lynching on several occasions, joining the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in Roosevelt’s first term in 1934 and having a close professional relationship with its president at the time, Walter White. She even went so far as to set up a meeting with White and her husband to encourage Franklin to publicly support the Costigan-Wagner bill, which he refused. Roosevelt stated to White at their meeting: 

“If I come out for the anti-lynching bill now, they will block every bill I ask Congress to pass to keep America from collapsing. I just can’t take the risk.”

Roosevelt stood his ground, fearful that the Southern Democrats in Congress, representatives he relied on to get his New Deal programs passed, would turn their back on him and  the New Deal. One can ponder: If FDR was president today, would he back the #blacklivesmatter movement, or would he spend more time worrying about his own Congressional agenda?

2. Japanese Internment during World War II 

During the Second World War, the federal government saw Japanese American citizens as a threat.  However, when President Roosevelt passed Executive Order #9066 in 1942, it made it acceptable for the Secretary of War and any designated Military Commanders to:

“Whom he may from time to time designate, whenever he or any designated Commander deems such action necessary or desirable, to prescribe military areas in such places and of such extent as he or the appropriate Military Commander may determine, from which any or all persons may be excluded, and with respect to which, the right of any person to enter, remain in, or leave shall be subject to whatever restrictions the Secretary of War or the appropriate Military Commander may impose in his discretion”.

Moreover, it made it legal for said Commanders to prescribe what they called “military areas”, or relocation camps, for any and every person they deemed necessary: in this case, Japanese Americans. This executive order essentially allowed Japanese American citizens to be removed from their homes and relocated to internment camps where they were not allowed to leave, for not committing any crime but being of Japanese descent. This was perhaps one of the largest government-run racial profiling events in American history, and Roosevelt labeled it “A-OK”. One may ponder: how does this make Roosevelt different from the present-day with the current level of racial profiling that takes place for minorities such as African Americans, Hispanic Americans, and Muslim Americans?

3. A New Deal for Some of the American People 

When you learn about FDR in school, you most likely associate him with the New Deal and how it helped the American people recover from the Great Depression.  As mentioned above, these federally funded programs were set out to create and give jobs to suffering citizens. However, it did not include all Americans.  For example, the National Recovery Administration (NRA) of 1933 “not only offered whites the first crack at jobs, but authorized separate and lower pay scales for blacks”.  Furthermore, the Federal Housing Authority (FHA) of 1934 “refused to guarantee mortgages for blacks who tried to buy in white neighborhoods,” and the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) of 1933 created to employ young men on environmental projects, maintained segregated camps.  According to author Eric Rauchway, “Roosevelt never said anything outwardly about the fact that minorities were the last to get hired for New Deal jobs”. Once again, Roosevelt appealed to the conservative southern Democrats who were influential in Congress and oversaw many committee chairmanships, in fear of them blocking his pieces of legislation if he got involved with the “race question”. One may ponder: How might Roosevelt have handled job discrimination in 2020? 

Conclusion

The aforementioned reasons why President Roosevelt may not be seen as the “ideal Democrat” of 2020 are a few of a number of examples we can consider. Segregation in the military existed and he did not speak out against it. Regarding the Nazi persecution of Jews, he did not actively intervene or welcome Jewish refugees to the United States.

Franklin Roosevelt did much for the United States as a country economically. He revolutionized certain aspects of the Democratic Party, while staying silent on the pivotal social issues of the time. The birth of the present-day Democrat can be accredited to Roosevelt when it comes to the involvement of the federal government in citizen’s livelihoods, but not the social issues of the 1930s and 1940s.

So, in 2020, would FDR be considered the ideal Democrat? Let us know what you think below.

An Early European Expedition to America: The Spanish in New Mexico

The growth of European influence in modern-day America can be traced back many centuries. Here, Daniel L. Smith discusses an early such encounter - the Spanish expedition to New Mexico led by Don Juan de Oñate in the late 16th century.

Daniel’s book on mid-19th century northern California is now available. Find our more here: Amazon US | Amazon UK

The San Agustín de la Isleta Mission in 1925 - one of the key reasons for European colonialism was to spread Christianity. This mission has roots back to the 17th century, although the town it is in was first encountered by Europeans in the 16th century.

Some call this a spectacular historical example of God’s Providence. Others challenge it as pure luck.  North American Native Americans are vital in the grand design for the world’s history. Their history plays an equally important role in the larger story in how history continues to be laid out for humanity. Their culture takes part in the same human history that God has had for all of humankind since the Creation.

Now, Providence is not just the name of a city in Rhode Island. Providence is a word that is generally defined as God’s omnipresent and active role in the world’s history. That means at any given time He may, or may not, intervene on humanity’s behalf. Providence is also seen as historical proof through linking current events, the historical past, and Christianity.

Many people do not know that one of the first times mainland America was entered by Europeans was by way of northern Mexico and the Spanish. It wasn’t until 1598 that the Spanish would fully try to colonize New Mexico. An expedition of 400 soldiers headed north from Mexico City, led by devout Catholic explorer Don Juan de Oñate. This was the second time that any European would touch mainland North America in this period. It was also the second time they would also have experience with the Pueblo Native Americans, as one of the first Native American tribes who they came into contact with.

Early Encounter

The feelings and observations of divine authorship over the initial European discovery of New Mexico could not be truly understood without offering a final example of God’s omnipresent works. Occurring shortly after this event, historian Villagra wrote of much hardship endured by Onate’s expedition into indigenous and untraveled New Mexico:

 “After many trials and many sufferings, [we] came in sight of a splendid pueblo. We gave it the name of’ ‘San Juan,’ adding ‘de los Caballeros’ in memory of those noble sons who first raised in these barbarous regions the bloody tree upon which Christ perished for the redemption of mankind.”[1]

The task of desert exploration was no easy job. And the idea of “trials and many sufferings” shouldn’t be taken out of context either. They were literally surviving. It was also mentioned that:

“These men are forced at times to subsist on unsavory roots and unknown seeds, and even on the flesh of dogs, horses, and other animals whose flesh is most abhorrent to all civilized people. Through the snowy passes they blaze their way as a plow cuts a furrow through the soil. Often in the mountain fastnesses they escape in snowdrifts only by clinging to the tails of their horses…”

Upon making it to a Native American village:

 “The natives of this pueblo came forth and gladly shared their homes with us. Here the entire army made camp. One day, while the general was taking his meal, the savages began to raise such a frightful wail that we all thought the final day of judgment had arrived, when we would be called before the judgment seat of God to give our final accounting.

Astonished and confused, we inquired the cause of such dreadful lamentations. The people answered that for a long time they had been praying to their gods for rain; that despite their prayers not a single cloud appeared to darken the heavens, and that unless the drought were broken all their hopes would be gone, for not a single plant would yield its crop.

On hearing this, the commissary and the good Fray [Father] Cristóbal, trusting in God from whom all our needs must come, commanded the Indians to cease their wailing, for they would offer prayers to God in heaven, asking Him to look down with pity, and, though they were disobedient children, to send abundant rains that the dying plants might revive and yield plentiful crops.

The Indians were greatly pleased, and like little children who hush when they are given the things they have cried for, ceased their lamentations. Eagerly and anxiously they scanned the heavens, awaiting the promised rain. The next day at about the same hour in which they had set up their wail, the skies suddenly became dark and the clouds of heaven opened and poured forth regular torrents of rain. The barbarians stood spellbound in awe and mute gratitude at the unbounding mercy of God…”[2]

God’s omnipresence is literal. History is His story. Examples of Providence are well-documented throughout history, including American history. Humanity, in all its make-up, is part of His all perfectly written and final grand design.

You can read a selection of Daniel’s past articles on: California in the US Civil War (here), Spanish Colonial Influence on Native Americans in Northern California (here), Christian ideology in history (here), the collapse of the Spanish Armada in 1588 (here), early Christianity in Britain (here), the First Anglo-Dutch War (here), and the 1918 Spanish Influenza outbreak (here).

Finally, Daniel Smith writes at complexamerica.org.

References

[1] Minge, Ward A., Miguel Encinias, Alfred Rodriguez, Joseph P. Sanchez, Gaspar P. De Villagra, and Larry Frank. "Historia de la Nueva Mexico, 1610: Gaspar Perez de Villagra.” The Western Historical Quarterly 25, no. 2 (1994), 237. Doi: 10.2307/971486.

[2] Ibid.

The Beginnings and Growth of Islam in Kashmir

Kashmir has been a major center of learning since ancient times. It has been a seat of religions such as Buddhism, Hinduism (particularly Brahmanism), and Islam. Kashmir today is a largely Islamic state, but what led to the beginnings and growth of Islam in Kashmir? Manan Shah explains.

The ruins of the Temple and Enclosure of Marttand or the Sun, near Bhawan, from the pre-Islamic era in Kashmir. Probable date of temple A.D. 490-555. Probable date of colonnade A.D. 693-729. Photo taken by John Burke in 1868. Available here.

The advent of Islam in Kashmir can be roughly traced from the 14th century with the conversion of Rinchan from Buddhism to Islam, who later came to be known as Sultan Sadr-Ul-Din, and therefore becoming the first Muslim ruler of Kashmir (although earlier efforts were made by Muhammad-bin-Qasim during his invasion of Sindh). Rinchen originally came as a fugitive from Tibet during the reign of Shahdeva. Interestingly, Rinchan’s genetic roots have been traced to a royal bloodline in Tibet. Shahdeva, on the other hand, had an able minister called Ramachandra, who later ascended to the throne and was assisted by his daughter Kota Rani. Rinchen soon became envious of Ramachandra due to which he executed the latter and made his way to the throne. He even ended up marrying Ramachandra’s daughter. He was later accompanied by Shah Mir of Swat, protégé of Ramachandra, who later served as a minister and then overthrew Kota Rani to ascend to the throne. 

Rinchen’s change of faith is generally thought to be due to Bul-Bul Shah who arrived in Kashmir in 1324 AD. The birth name of Bul-Bul Shah was Sayyid Abdur Rahman, although some suggest his name was Sayyid Sharaf-ud-din. Bul-Bul Shah hailed from Turkistan and belonged to the Suhrawardi school of Sufism. Bul-Bul Shah’s influence over Rinchan was immense and so Rinchan learned the teachings of Islam. Another possible reason behind his conversion is political gain. It is believed that he initially wanted to convert to Hinduism but others did not want that, which led him to convert to Islam in order to maintain a strong alliance. Rinchan’s conversion caused a great impact in the society of Kashmir as many people slowly started converting to Islam in order to follow his footsteps. Hence, a place of gathering was constructed which came to be known as Bul-Bul Langar in Shar-e-Khas, the first mosque in Kashmir. It has unfortunately been reduced to ruins. On the other hand, some rulers and ministers such as Udyandeva and Bikhsana Bhatta did not compromise their faiths. After the death of Rinchin, Kota Rani married Udyandeva who was the brother of Shahdeva.

The growth of Islam

The conversion of people in Kashmir was further encouraged with the arrival of the Sayyids, the most prominent being Mir Siyyid Ali Hamadani, who is also known as Shah-e-Hamadan and Ameer-i-Kabir and Ali-i-Sani. Shah-e-Hamdan was born on 14 of Rajab 714 AH (1312 AD) at Hamadan in Iran. He came to Kashmir in 1372 AD during the reign of Sultan Shihab-ul-Din. It is said he was accompanied by his seven hundred followers. He stayed in the Kashmir Valley for seven years and later visited the valley at least three more times. During his last visit to the valley, he had to cut his trip short on account of ill health. He took his last breath in Hazara.

The arrival of Shah-e-Hamadan in Kashmir can also be traced to the advent of Sufism in Kashmir. Some temples were converted into mosques during this time by the people who had recently converted to Islam. Stories and legends centered around the shrine of Shah-e-Hamadan, with the claim that two leading Hindu ascetics along with their followers accepted Islam in the presence of Shah-e-Hamadan after he displayed his supernatural powers in the exact same location. 

Apart from Shah-e-Hamadan, there were other Sayyids who had come to Kashmir to preach and propagate Islam before the arrival of Shah-e-Hamadan himself. Sayyid Jala-ud-Din of Bukhara, Sayyid Taj-ud-din and Sayyid Hussain Simnani played major roles. 

Moreover, Shah-e-Hamadan’s co-workers and disciples such as Mir Sayyid Haider, Sayyid Jamal-ul-din, and Sayyid Jamal-ul-din Alai carried on his work. His son Mir Mohammad Hamadan carried on his legacy too. Also trying to carry on his work, Mir Mohammad Hamadan prohibited the sale of wine in the valley and also put a ban on Sati and forbid gambling and nach (dance). On his arrival to Kashmir, he was accompanied by three hundred Sayyids.                          

Influence of the Sayyids

The Sayyids influenced many ascetics in Kashmir who then came to be known as Rishis or Babas. They further helped to spread and propagate Islam with their mystic and philosophical thoughts. Their profound knowledge of Islam, humility, and respect for other religions attracted many people towards this new faith. It was believed that they often had supernatural powers or could make predictions.

Saints and Reshis like Shaikh Nur-ud-Din, Baba Nasr-ul-din, and Sheikh Hamza Makdum practically converted the whole valley through their precepts. Many of the Reshis and their disciples constructed Ziyarat which would uphold the tradition of their saints to which people pay tribute to this day.

Another reason that influenced conversion to Islam in the Kashmir Valley was poverty. Since the economy of the state was in crisis, the Sayyids brought many crafts and activities with them which people later took as their profession in search of a better livelihood. Another possible reason could be Brahman dominance in society and a rift between Brahmanism and Buddhism. In addition the emergence of landlords, unrest and mutiny in garrisons, quick successions of kings, and a lack of intellect and humility among ministers also resulted in unrest. This eased the path for Sayyids and Reshis, leading to the current Islamic nature of Kashmir, which has not only influenced the religious character but also socio-cultural aspects of the Valley.

Therefore, the state of Kashmir, which today represents itself as a Muslim majority state, once went through large-scale religious conversion, political, economical and social changes. This eventually changed the demography of the state. However, what never changed for Kashmir and its people is its indigenous aspect, which is essentially the amalgamation of different cultures, traditions and customs.

What do you think about the history of religion in Kashmir? Let us know below.

Bibliography 

G.M.D Sufi, Kashir, From the Earliest times to our Own.

P.N.K Bamzai, Cultural and Political History of Kashmir 

W.R Lawrence, The Valley of Kashmir

The Impact of the Bubonic Plague on Italy

The Bubonic plague, or Black Death, devastated the world in the fourteenth century, resulting in anywhere from 75 to 200 million deaths. In Europe, 30% to 60% of the population died. Here, Richard Marrison considers what happened specifically in Italy/the Italian states during the Black Death and its longer-term impact there.

Boccaccio's 'The plague of Florence in 1348'. Source: Wellcome images, L0072270. Available here.

The Bubonic Plague arrived in Europe around the year 1347, spreading from modern-day Russia. It appeared again later in the century on several occasions.

Within Italy (formed of a number of states/republics in the 14th century), the Black Death made its first landfall in Sicily (1347) and then moved on to other places including Venice and Genoa.

The plague was spread by the fleas that were on the black rat which came on Genoese merchants who were fleeing a Mongol attack. They entered Europe on their ships to save their lives.

The symptoms of this plague included a swelling beneath the armpits and groin area. It was the most deadly plague of that time – and took the life of the infected person within 2 to 3 days. 

Apart from the massive effect on human lives, the plague also had a huge impact on social, economic, religious, and cultural aspects of the places it spread.

The impacts on all these aspects contributed to the emergence of the Renaissance in Italy. 

Socio-Economic Impact of the Bubonic Plague 

The socio-economic situation was already bad in Italy before the arrival of the Black Death. A large population rate led to a lack of food, grain, land, and water. The plague hit Italy when the situation was already bad. The people got harmed so much by it as they were having trouble fighting against any diseasesdue to their poor immune systems.

The Black Death took millions of livess and the ratio of death was more higher among poor than rich. However, even the rich struggled to survive or fight against the plague.

The result was a decrease in population. For example the population of Florence went from 120,000 to 50,000 within 13 years, from 1338 to 1351. It also affected the population of most every city including Venice, Parma, and Venice.

Beside the direct impact on the lives of people, the plague also hampered the economy. Trade stagnated, there was also a rise in unemplyment, and many businesses failed. One of the reasons, aside from fewer customers, for businesses to fail was the lack of labor. However, despite the economic downfall, the wages for urban workers and those who worked in the agricultural sector began to increase.

People who managed to survive the Black Death got a chance to work at a higher wage and this led to a change in their living standard.

There was drastic social mobility too. The poor became merchants and the merchants became the nobility.

Besides this, many labour-saving devices were also invented and helped drive economic growth.

The cultural impact of the Bubonic Plague 

Culturally speaking, the plague led people to be obsessed with death. It was also shown in a form of dance which was named as the ‘Dance of Death’. Despite people knowing they were going to die, they still longed for happiness and peace.

The cultural impact was written about by the renowned literary figures Boccaccio and Petrarch. Their writings included texts about religion, happiness in life, beauty in nature, and the joys of life. Getting inspired by these figures many involved themselves in fine art, writings, and painting.

Before the plague, Italy was a rigid society where the culture of following the path of family tradition was a must. However, things started moving in a new direction afterwards.

People were increasingly able to choose what they wanted to pursue as their career. Some also started believing that no one should be judged based on how they were born.

Rather, they should be acknowledged for their merits, skills, and knowledge. With this, the system of Individualism started and many artists, writers, architects, and sculpturists emerged.

The religious impact of the Bubonic Plague

The Black Death led to a revival in religion as well. People often believed that everything that happened was as per the wish of God, and that the plague was a way to punish people who had been immoral, selfish, wicked, and greedy during their lifetime.

However, the Bubonic plague-infected and killed everyone including priests and monks. Indeed, labor started to lack in the church as well.

People, such as flagellants, then started practicing severe methods to show their devition to God, but this also did not help stop the plague.

So, the government started training more people as monks and priests, resultingd in the degradation of the quality and the standard of the priests and monks. This contributed to more corruption in the Church - and some then stopped respecting the Church.

The plague also led to a change in the education system, which had been largely run by the church before. A new secular education system emerged, mainly in the cities. This transformation played a vital role in the emergence of the Italian Renaissance as importance moved away from religion.

Impact of Bubonic Plague on Authority

Alongside less regard for religion, there was the emergence of more political revolts. Revolts were done by both classes of people: rich and poor. However, one of the most famous political revolts was led by poor laborers and became known as the Ciompi Revolt. The revolt started in 1378 and lasted until 1382.

More broadly, people grew more curious and started questioning more, but especially questions related to philosophy and politics.

This certainly contributed to the emergence of the Renaissance. Indeed, many poets and scholars started questioning the authorities which led to the growth of the Renaissance Humanism, which wanted to renew Christianity.

Conclusion

The Black Death changed the world in various ways. It took the lives of millions and also left an impact on various important aspects of life.

The plague changed the salaries of many people, living standards, and the progress of ideas. It made many people in Italy and Europe wealthier than before – and it also led to the Renaissance which in turn changed the course of history.

What do you think about the impact of the Black Death on Italy? Let us know below.

References

https://www.historyten.com/renaissance/famous-renaissance-genius/

https://www.healio.com/news/infectious-disease/20180212/plague-blame-the-flea-not-the-rat

https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/z7r7hyc/revision/2

https://time.com/91315/the-medieval-black-death-made-you-healthier-if-you-survived/

https://egrove.olemiss.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1682&context=hon_thesis

Did World War Two Japanese Kamikaze Attacks have more Impact than Nazi V-2 Rockets?

The Nazi V-2 rocket became infamous during the latter part of World War Two in Europe; however, there was a different weapon commonly used by Japan against the Allies. Here, Daniel Boustead explains the importance of Japanese Kamikaze suicide attacks – and compares their military impact to that of the Nazi V-2 rocket.

A Kamikaze suicide dive against the USS Essex on November 25, 1944.

During World War II the Nazi V-2 Rocket achieved fame and infamy in its operational launchings against allied targets in Europe from 1944 to 1945. The Nazi V-2 rocket also served as a predecessor for the Saturn V Rocket that brought man to the moon in 1969. The V-2 rocket also influenced the U.S. Missile program.  However, the V-2 Rocket’s impact during World War II was much less than the Japanese suicide ‘weapons’ which were made by the Japanese Kamikaze units. Japanese Kamikaze planes were more effective than the German V-2 Rocket. 

Kamikaze plane sinkings

The regular Kamikaze piston engine aircraft sunk 46 ships from October 25th, 1944 to July 29th, 1945 - and 3 out of those 46 ships sunk were aircraft carriers (the most important target the Japanese wanted to destroy) ([1]).

The Japanese Model 11 Ohka “Cherry Blossom” suicide rocket plane sunk the American destroyer Mannert L. Abele off the coast Okinawa on April 12th, 1945([2]).

The Japanese Kaiten Type 1 suicide torpedo sunk the American fleet oiler Mississinewa (AD-39) off the coast of Ulithi on November 20th, 1944 after it was launched from Japanese submarine I-47([3]).  The Japanese Kaiten Type 1 suicide torpedo sunk the large landing craft infantry LCI(L)-600 at Ulithi on January 12th, 1945 ([4]).  On July 24th, 1945 the American destroyer escort Underhill was sunk by a Japanese submarine which fired the Type 1 Kaiten suicide torpedo at the  vessel and made a direct hit  sinking it in the Philippine Sea area([5]). A total of 3 American ships were sunk by Japanese Kamikaze Kaiten Type 1 suicide torpedoes  during World War II. 

The Japanese Shinyo suicide motorboats sunk between the dates of January 9th and January 10th, 1945 the American landing craft infantry-mortar LCI (M)-974 in the Lingayen Gulf in the Philippines([6]). On January 31st, 1945 Japanese Shinyo suicide motorboats sunk the American sub-chaser PC-1129 in the Philippines (6). On February 16th, 1945 Japanese suicide Shinyo motorboats sunk the American Large Landing Craft Support, MK  LCS (L) 3-26, LCS (L) (3)-7,  and LCS (3)-49 in the port of Mariveles in the Philippines (6). On the dates of April 3rd to April 4th, 1945 Japanese Shinyo Suicide motorboats sunk the American landing craft infantry-gunboat  LCI (G)-82 off the coast of Okinawa([7]).  A total of six American ships were sunk by the Japanese Shinyo suicide motorboats during World War II. 

A grand total of 56 American Ships were sunk by Japanese Suicide Weapons during World War II: 46 American ships sunk by regular Kamikaze piston engine aircrafts, 1 by the Japanese Okha model 11 Okha “Cherry Blossom”, 3 by the Japanese Kaiten type 1 suicide torpedoes, and 6 by the Japanese Shinyo suicide motorboats).

Impact of Kamikaze suicide weapons

The Japanese Kamikaze suicide weapons not only killed people and caused valuable equipment to be lost, but also created psychological fear in the American military who faced them. This combination made the Japanese Kamikaze weapons very effective. In contrast the German V-2 Rocket was designed principally to be a terror weapon against civilians and thus had very little effect against military targets([8]).  The Kamikaze weapons, then, had some advantages which the German V-2 Rocket lacked in military terms.

The Japanese Kamikaze suicide piston engine aircraft, the Japanese Model 11 Ohka Cherry Blossom suicide rocket planes, and Shinyo suicide motorboats had increased accuracy because humans were inside them. The German V-2 rocket lacked this and was guided to its target using a combination of radio control transmitter a control receiver, and a gyroscope([9]). The Japanese Kaiten Type 1 suicide  torpedo had a 3,400 lbs. warhead and its fuel was a kerosene and oxygen mixture, which meant that it would not leave a white trail of water behind it, making it hard to spot after it was fired ([10]).

In contrast while the V-2 rocket and the Kaiten Type 1 suicide torpedo were invulnerable after being launched, the Kaiten Type 1 suicide torpedo was more destructive than the German V-2 rocket. The reason is that the German V-2 rocket warhead was filled with 1,650 pounds of the explosive Amatol([11]). The fact that Japanese Kaiten Type 1 suicide torpedo carried a 3,400 lbs. warhead made a far more destructive weapon than the German V-2 rocket. According to the series Nazi Mega Weapons: German Engineering in WW II: Axis Weapon - The Kamikaze, historian Tosh Minhora stated: “The Kaiten was intended to sink a very large battleship - just with one shot it packed a large punch!”([12]). Also, the fact that the Kaiten Type 1 suicide torpedo had human guidance improved its accuracy over the V-2 rocket’s complicated guidance system. The Kaiten Type 1 suicide torpedo was probably the strongest Kamikaze suicide weapon.

The combination of Japanese Kamikaze weapons, the fanatical and diehard Japanese refusal to surrender, (that the allies witnessed fighting the Japanese in the Pacific and Asian Theatre), and little to almost no opposition to war at home in Japan or by ethnic Japanese in their occupied territories, forced the Allies to enact three drastic measures. The Americans used atomic bombs on Hiroshima on August 6th, 1945 and then again on Nagasaki on August 9th, 1945. Thirdly the Soviets’ launched Operation August Storm which retook the Japanese occupied colonies of Manchuria, Kuril Islands, and Sakhalin Islands. It was only after these three events that the Japanese capitulated to the Allies on August 15th, 1945 and signed a peace treaty aboard the American Battleship U.S.S. Missouri. In contrast, “while the V-2 Rocket resulted in the Allies having to divert manpower from other necessary military operations to civil defense, aerial reconnaissance, and bombing of the flying bomb sites - England was not terrorized into surrender and the flow of military supplies to Antwerp, Belgium and Liege, Belgium was barely affected”(8).

The V-2 rocket achieved infamy and brought about destruction in Europe from 1944 to 1945, and it would serve as the model of the rocket that put a man on the moon in 1969. However, the German V-2 rocket did not have the strategic and tactical impact that the Japanese Kamikaze weapons had. These unconventional Japanese weapons were clearly superior in destructive power and military effectiveness. 

Do you think the Japanese Kamikaze weapons were more effective than the Nazi V-2 rockets? Let us know below.

[1] Gordan, Bill. “47 Ships Sunk by Kamikaze Aircraft”. Kamikaze Images. Accessed August 28th, 2020.https://wgordon.web/wesleyan/edu/kamikaze/background/ships-sunk/index.htm 

[2] Grunden, Walter E. Secret Weapons & World War II: Japan in the Shadow of Big Science. Lawrence: Kansas. University Press of Kansas. 2005. 152. 

[3] Boyd, Carl and Yoshida, Akihiko. The Japanese Submarine Force and  World War II. Annapolis: Maryland. Bluejacket Books: Naval  Institute Press. 1995 and 2002. 169. 

[4] “NavSource Online: Amphibious Photo Archive- USS LCI(L)-600”. August 28th, 2020. https://www.navsource.org/archives/10/15/150600.htm

[5] Frank, Richard B. Downfall: The End of the Imperial Japanese Empire. New York: New York. Random House. 1999. 159. 

[6] Hackett, Bob and Kingsepp, Sander. SHINYO!: Explosive Motorboats based in the Philippines 1944-1945. Last Modified. 2009-2011. Nihon Kaigun.  Accessed August 28th, 2020. http://www.combindedfleet.com/PhilippinesEMB.htm

[7] Hackett, Bob and Kingsepp, Sander. SHINYO!: Explosive Motorboats based at Okinawa  1944-1945. Last Modified 2009-2011. Nihon Kaigun.  Accessed August 29th, 2020. 

[8]  Kennedy, Gregory P.  Germany’s V-2 Rocket. Atglen: Pennsylvania. Schiffer Military History. 2006. 79. 

[9] Kennedy, Gregory P. Germany’s V-2 Rocket.  Atlgen: Pennsylvania. Schiffer Military History. 2006. 51-53. 

[10] Boyd, Carl and Yoshida, Akihiko. The Japanese Submarine Force and World War II. Annapolis: Maryland. BlueJacket Books Naval Institute Press. 1995 and 2002. 39 

[11] Kennedy, Gregory P. Germany’s V-2 Rocket. Atglen: Pennsylvania: Schiffer Military History. 2006. 48. 

[12] Minohara, Tosh. “Axis Weapon-The Kamikaze”. Nazi Mega Weapons: German Engineering in WWII. PBS. 2014-2015. 

Bibliography

Boyd, Carl and Yoshida, Akihiko. The Japanese Submarine Force and World War II.  Annapolis: Maryland. Bluejacket Books: Naval Institute Press. 1995 and 2002. 

Frank, Richard B. Downfall: The End of the Imperial Japanese Empire.  New York: New York. Random house, 1999.

Gordon, Bill. “47 Ships Sunk by Kamikaze Aircraft”. Last Modified 2007. Accessed August 28th, 2020. https://wgordon.web.wesleyan.edu/kamikaze/background/ships-sunk/index.htm

Gruden, Walter E. Secret Weapons & World War II: Japan in the Shadow of Big Science. Lawrence: Kansas. University Press of Kansas. 2005

Hackett, Bob and Kingsepp, Sander. SHINYO!: Explosive Motorboats based in the Philippines 1944-1945”. Last Modified 2009-2011. Nihon Kaigun. Accessed August 28th, 2020. http://www.combindedfleet.com/PhilippinesEMB.htm

Hackett, Bob and Kingsepp, Sander. SHINYO!:” Explosive Motorboats  based on Okinawa 1944-1945”. Accessed August 28th, 2020. http://www.combindedfleet.com/OkinawaEMB.htm

Kennedy, Gregory P. Germany’s V-2 Rocket. Atglen: Pennsylvania. Schiffer Military History. 2006. 

Minohara, Tosh. “Axis Weapon: The Kamikaze”. Nazi Mega Weapons: German Engineering in WWII. PBS. 2014-2015. 

“USS LCI9(L)-600”. NavSource Online. Last Updated August 23rd, 2019. Accessed on August 28th, 2020.https://www.navsource.org/archives/10/15/150600.htm

Violent Protests in American History: Part 2 – Race Riots and Racial Protest

American history has had many violent protests, and these often went on for significant periods of time. Here, Theresa Capra continues a series looking at the 2020 protests in America from an historical perspective.

In this article, she considers race-based protests in American history. She looks at how African-Americans often suffered from racist protests in the 19th and into the 20th centuries – and then considers how anti-racist protests in the 1960s and 1919 compare to those of today.

You can read the first article in the series on how 2020’s protests compare to the Bacon’s, Shays’, and Whiskey Rebellions here.

Dr. Theresa Capra is a Professor of Education who teaches education, history, and sociology at a Community College. She is the founder of Edtaps.com, which focuses on research, trends, technology, and tips for educators. 

Policemen and a soldier during race riots in Chicago, Illinois, during the Red Summer of 1919.

How are you doing during these unprecedented times? 

It’s a well-intentioned, but inaccurate, rhetorical question that has become standard in 2020. Indeed, 2020 is a blockbuster year for the American history books: a global pandemic, one of the worst wildfire seasons on record, and in our social media feeds, unrelenting social unrest. But it’s all far from unprecedented - especially the protests. 

Race has been an impetus for countless violent uprisings since the inception of the United States - usually with whites perpetrating the violence upon Blacks. And although the antebellum South was undoubtedly the most oppressive place and violent time for African-Americans, it’s also a widely covered, even romanticized period, teeming with blockbuster movies and best-selling literature. The consequence of this extensive treatment is that many people fail to fully understand racism in early America beyond slavery, even though race riots were common in free states. Furthermore, many white Americans tend to view well-known historical events such as the Civil War and Civil Rights Movement as punctuation marks, periods to be exact, which ended odious periods of Southern history such as slavery, racism, and Jim Crow. However, a closer look handily flips that perspective on its head. Likewise, there is no moral high ground that cosmopolitans or Yankees can claim.

The Big Apple & City of Brotherly Love 

One example can be traced to 1834 when destructive riots, which targeted Blacks and abolitionists, ripped through New York City. Irish Catholics were settling in Manhattan in droves and they frequently clashed with Protestant abolitionists. Additionally, white residents resented the free Black population for becoming assertive and challenging racial norms. Tensions mounted, and white mobs ultimately burned buildings and homes, destroyed municipal property, and attacked African-Americans. They held parts of the city hostage until it all ended. 

Free Blacks in Philadelphia experienced the same ugly racism as their New York City counterparts. A particularly egregious event occurred in 1838 when Pennsylvania Hall, a building erected for abolitionist and suffragette meetings, was burned to the ground by racist mobs. Not one single culprit faced any legal recourse. Originally, whites and Blacks intermingled, and a prosperous African-American community cropped up along Lombard Street. But their success did not go unnoticed and by 1842, residents of Lombard Street came under a full-scale attack by Irish immigrants, who also attacked police officers when they intervened.

Things only worsened as working-class Whites turned their animosity towards African-Americans, whom they viewed as economic competitors. Wealthy, white Philadelphians were sympathetic to the South because they shared commerce, as well as summers in beach resorts such as Cape May, New Jersey. The city that is home to the Liberty Bell and Constitution Hall can also claim some of the harshest racial violence in America’s history.

Go West! 

As Americans moved west, they brought horses, carriages, and racism. Midwestern Cincinnati attracted Irish and German immigrants after the Erie Canal reached completion and ultimately became a hotbed of race riots launched by angry whites who feared economic competition from the growing population of free Blacks. Similarly, in Alton, Illinois, whites were agitated by the number of escaped slaves settling in the town due to its border with the slave-state Missouri. They feared economic reprisals from southern states and attributed the situation to a prominent abolitionist and printer Elijah Lovejoy. On November 7, 1837, a murderous mob set fire to a warehouse and shot and killed Elijah Lovejoy. The rioters evaded justice because some of the mobsters were clerks and judges. 

Farther west brings us to Bleeding Kansas (1854-1861), (or Bloody, as some prefer) - a dress rehearsal for the Civil War replete with looting, arson, property destruction, battlelines, small armies, and murder. The original issue, whether Kansas should join the Union as a free or slave state, should have been settled through popular sovereignty, but that was not to be. Both sides hunkered down and belligerent pro-slavery Missourians, known as border ruffians, tampered with elections and used physical intimidation to let the Kansans know which way the wind was blowing. One particularly violent incident occurred when ruffians crossed into the town of Lawrence, a free-state concentration, and sacked, looted, and blew property to smithereens. 

Interestingly, a similar vigilante scenario is surfacing today. Since May 2020, there have been at least 50 reports of armed individuals appearing at Black Lives Matter demonstrations inciting violence while claiming to be peacekeepers. One example is the Kenosha Guard in Wisconsin, a militia group that launched a ‘call to arms’ on social media encouraging ‘patriots’ to rise up and defend property from protesting ‘thugs.’ Kyle Rittenhouse answered their call. He shot three protesters, killing two. 

The Misunderstanding of the Civil War

Obviously, the most violent uprising over race was the American Civil War. Insurgents in seven southern states coordinated an aggressive assault on their own countrymen by first declaring sovereignty, then attacking Fort Sumter while recruiting more rebels along the way - all to preserve chattel slavery in perpetuity. The Confederate States of America, as they called themselves, were willing to cause wanton death and destruction for white supremacy, mostly in their own backyards, which they pulled off six ways to Sunday with a million casualties and unfathomable property damage. Property sequester and destruction were key tactics for both the revolters and quashers. For example, General William T. Sherman affirmed that his March to Sea laid mostly waste to Georgia: “I estimate the damage done to the State of Georgia and its military resources at $100,000,000; at least $20,000,000 of which has inured to our advantage, and the remainder is simple waste and destruction.”

Today, Americans tend to forget all this history while admonishing protesters for property damage. They focus on the aftermath rather than the reasons. Agreeably, on its face, the aftermath is shocking. As of June 2020, it was estimated that Minneapolis amassed around 55 million dollars in damages, and Portland over 20 million. In July 2020, the Downtown Cleveland Alliance estimated over 6 million dollars in damages resulting from property ruin and lost revenue. However, evidence demonstrates that the majority of rallies have been peaceful, despite the public’s perception that protesters are laser focused on destruction. Ironically, a lot of the property destruction is because of the Civil War - protestors have toppled statues of Jefferson Davis and Stonewall Jackson in Richmond, one of Robert E. Lee in Alabama, a Confederate Defenders monument in South Carolina, and a statue of Charles Linn, just to name a few. 

Isn’t it curious that there are so many monuments glorifying perpetrators who orchestrated the bloodiest riots in American history? As it turns out, revisionists successfully translated a lost cause into the Lost Cause. Around the turn of the 19th century, the Lost Cause movement lobbied to portray Confederates as freedom fighters for state’s rights rather than armed traitors in rebellion over slavery. The Civil War became viewed as a singular political event with causes exacted by both sides. But, it’s better understood as the culmination (and continuation) of a series of extremely violent and destructive uprisings because of race and slavery. 

Those who cannot remember the past are doomed to repeat it 

The summer of 2020 has been compared to the Long Hot Summer of 1967 when approximately 160 uprisings exploded across the United States in response to police brutality and systemic racism. Some historians have also noted parallels to 1968 - another year full of racial unrest that resulted in the permanent demise of once vibrant urban centers such as Trenton, Pittsburgh, and Baltimore. However, farther hindsight is needed for 2020 vision. For instance, the Red Summer of 1919 featured a series of violent racial clashes and like today, it happened upon the backdrop of a deadly global pandemic, the Spanish Flu. Despite the pandemic, one of the most virulent massacres against African-Americans occurred in Tulsa, Oklahoma, when angry white mobs decimated the vibrant metropolis known as Black Wall Street. Tulsa is not very different from its predecessors: Lombard Street, Alton, Cincinnati, or New York. The issues are also not much different than Minneapolis on May 26, 2020, when George Floyd was killed by police officer, Derek Chauvin.

How does this story end? It doesn’t. Today, African-Americans are disenfranchised, underrepresented, too often relegated to low-paying jobs, subjected to chronic unemployment, poverty, and overall subjugation by any standard. White Americans want to know why violent revolts are still happening and perhaps promoting raw history can help. Still, I posit there is not one single comparison to be evenly made. The whole story must find its way back into social institutions, such as schools, in the name human progress.

What do you think of the comparisons between protests in 1919 and the 1960s and those of 2020? Let us know below.

The 12 Longest Reigning Monarchs in History

History is full of leaders who have had eventful reigns. But which monarchs have had the longest reigns in all of history? Here, Konstant Teleshov tells us the 12 longest reigning monarchs in all history.

King Louis XIV of France in 1673. Louis XIV was King of France for over 70 years.

In today's democratic world, it is difficult to imagine that one person remained in power for many decades. This applies particularly to countries with a republican form of government, where the head of state is elected for a specific term, about 5 years on average, by popular vote. Many readers may argue that there are still states with a monarchical form of government, both constitutional and absolute. Also, over the past 100 years, the world has seen many dictators who came to power through revolutions and military coups. The most famous of them include Fidel Castro, who ruled Cuba for 50 years, Libyan dictator Muammar Gaddafi (42 years in power), Iraqi tyrant Saddam Hussein (24 years in power), and Alfredo Stroessner, who was the leader of Paraguay for 35 years. A good example of a constitutional monarch is the current Queen of the UK, Elizabeth II. She has been ruling since 1952 (for 68 years as of 2020), but this is not the longest tenure on the throne - not only in the world but even among European monarchs.

However, history knows 12 rulers, Elizabeth II aside, who ruled their country for more than 65 years. Who are they?

Important note: in this article I will not consider the monarchs whose years in power are not officially confirmed, like the Egyptian Pharaoh Pepi II Neferkare, who, according to some sources, had ruled for more than 90 years. I will also not include in this list monarchs who were co-rulers like Constantine VIII, who was nominal co-emperor of Byzantine Empire for 63 years.

12. Ferdinand IV (1759 - 1825) (ruler for 65 years and 90 days)

Ferdinand IV officially became the King of Naples at the age of 8, when his father, Charles XII, went to reign in Spain. It happened in 1759. He is also known as King of the Two Sicilies as Ferdinand I (1816-1825) and King of Sicily as Ferdinand III (1759-1816).

The future ruler was not interested in ruling his state, so he received education only at the minimum level. Ferdinand IV liked to have fun and hunt; indeed, in spirit he was closer to the people than to the aristocracy of that time. In foreign policy, the king became an active opponent of the French Revolution, therefore the Neapolitan Kingdom participated in anti-French coalitions. The reason for this was the king’s wife, Maria Carolina of Austria, who was extremely indignant at the execution of the royal couple by revolutionaries. She had a great influence on the activities of her spouse, who founded the silk spinning mill and the Royal Nunziatella Military Academy in Naples. After the start of the Napoleonic wars, Ferdinand IV actively fought the French Empire, but he was forced to flee the country under the threat of invasion from the French three times. Probably his greatest achievement is the founding of an astronomical observatory in Palermo in 1790.

11. Basil II Porphyrogenitus (960 - 1025) (ruler for 65 years and 237 days)

The future emperor of the Byzantine Empire, Basil II, was born in 958 in the city of Constantinople. Two years later, he was crowned as co-emperor of state, which was inherited by his father Roman II. Over the next 13 years, many uprisings and internecine wars took place, before in 976 Basil II began to rule alone.

First of all, he introduced a new tax for large landowners. In addition to the fact that this was a new source of income for the state treasury, the emperor also strengthened imperial power. In foreign policy, Basil II was much more active than his father, annexing many new territories to his big state. The wars with the First Bulgarian Empire were marked by unprecedented cruelty even for that time. For example, after the capture of 15,000 Bulgarians, the emperor ordered them to have their eyes taken out and then to be sent home alive. Because of this decision, he got the nickname "the Bulgar Slayer". Basil II also concluded a profitable military-political alliance with Venice, which supplied its ships for the rapid movement of Byzantine troops.

In general, the reign of Basil II became an era of stability and power of the Byzantine Empire. He proved himself to be a tough and wise ruler, strengthening his state both from an economic and political point of view.

10. Franz Joseph I (1848 - 1916) (ruler for 67 years and 355 days)

The man, who became a real symbol of conservatism, was born on August 18, 1830. Franz Joseph I, who used to get up early in the morning from childhood, taught the inhabitants of the huge Austro-Hungarian Empire, which was inhabited by Czechs, Slovaks, Hungarians, Austrians and other nations, about his daily routine. He ascended the throne on December 2, 1848. This year went down in history as the "spring of nations". Young Franz realized that a cruel policy towards his own people could be the cause of the revolution, so he tried not to repeat the mistakes of his predecessors. Many historians call him the last ruler of the “old order,” who managed to unite several nations and preserve an empire that collapsed two years after his death.

Firstly, Franz Joseph I compromised the demands of the Hungarian people and made Austria-Hungary a dualistic monarchy. Secondly, he managed to reach a peace agreement with Prussia and Russia. So, Prussia became the center of the unification of the German lands in a single empire, and Russia helped Austria-Hungary to wage wars with the Ottoman Empire, because both states had their own interests in the Balkans. Thirdly, and unusually for a European leader at the time, the Emperor of Austria-Hungary had no disagreement with the Pope.

He was also known for his conservatism, simplicity of life, etiquette, and traditions. He called himself "the last monarch of the old school". After his brother was shot in Mexico, the emperor did not receive Mexican ambassadors for the rest of his life. He never got a phone in the palace and had a hard time agreeing to electricity. Franz Josef survived 4 heirs to the throne, so after his death, 29-year-old Charles I of Austria ascended to the throne.

9. Pacal the Great (615 - 683) (ruler for 68 years and 33 days)

Hanaab Pacal is the most famous of all the kings in the history of the classical Maya. His reign is an excellent example of how deeply an outstanding person can leave a mark on history. In the history of the Baakul Kingdom, Pacal I the Great occupies a central place. His descendants constantly used the legacy of the glorious ancestor and the fact of their descent from him to strengthen their own legitimacy. In our time, Pacal I and his tomb in the "Temple of the Inscriptions" have become one of the symbols of the pre-Columbian Maya civilization.

It has been established that Hanaab Pacal was born in March 603, and spent his childhood in Lakam-Ha (Palenque). However, he belonged to the previous dynasty of the rulers of this city only through his mother. Pacal ascended the throne at the age of 12, but really began to rule after the death of his mother in 640 and his father in 642. The stabilization of the economic and political situation of Palenque allowed the new ruler to begin a large-scale construction program in the capital of the Baakul Kingdom. During this time, improvements in construction techniques took place, which made it possible to expand the size of the space covered with a stone roof and create a local architectural style distinguished by elegance and harmony. It is important to note that Hanaab had impeccable artistic taste. In posthumous inscriptions he is called "the owner of the five pyramids".

Pacal the Great is also known for his successful military campaigns, in which he was opposed by the alliance of states located on the east of Palenque: K'ina (Piedras Negras), Pipa (Pomona or El Arenal), Vak'aab (Santa Elena Balancan), Ho -Pet (on the middle Usumasint), and the Kanul Kingdom. Hanaab managed to win several important victories, expanding the territory and increasing the influence of the Baakul Kingdom in the region.

8. Frederick III (1424 - 1493) (ruler for 69 years)

The future last emperor of medieval Europe was born on September 21, 1415, in Tyrol. Frederick III received the title of Duke of Styria when he was only 9 years old. He became king of Germany and emperor of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation over the next 18 years. Frederick III became the last emperor who was crowned in Rome.

During this reign, there was the beginning of an active invasion of Austrian lands by the Ottoman Empire and its vassals. The first clashes occurred in 1469. In the western direction Frederick III acted ineffectively. The Swiss Confederation forced him to recognize the independence of the Swiss cantons, but the French power became the main enemy of the Habsburg dynasty for many centuries to come.

On the whole, the personality of Frederick III is rather contradictory. On the one hand, he failed to strengthen imperial power. Major feudal lords strengthened their influence in the state. Austria under Frederick III did not become the center of a future empire; it would happen with his son Maximilian I. The financial system was in a protracted crisis.  Territorial concessions were also made in favor of Italy, the Czech Republic, and Hungary.  On the other hand, the emperor was able to lay the foundations for the future prosperity of the house of the Hapsburgs. His son Maximilian married Mary of Burgundy. This marriage determined the fate of Europe for several centuries.

7. Johann II the Good (1858 - 1929) (ruler for 70 years and 91 days)

How to keep a tiny state in the heart of Europe? How to make it the scientific and cultural center of the continent? Johann II, who ruled Liechtenstein for 70 years, knew the answers to these questions.

He was born on October 5, 1840. The young man received an excellent education in Belgium, France, and Germany. He ascended to the throne on November 11, 1858, and remained on it until his death. He carried out a number of significant reforms that changed the state for the better.  Firstly, Liechtenstein became independent in 1866. Secondly, Johann II ordered the dissolution of the army, consisting of 80 people, and declared his principality a neutral state following the example of Switzerland. Thirdly, a Parliament and State Bank were formed. The adoption of a new constitution in 1921 marked the beginning of close cooperation between Liechtenstein and Switzerland against the backdrop of global political changes in Europe after the First World War.

Johann II also actively invested in science, art, reconstructed medieval castles, and donated money to charity. In particular, he helped the Historical Museum of Vienna (it is the "Vienna Museum" now) in the creation of an art gallery. The prince was quite a closed man, so he never married. As a result, he did not leave heirs, and after his death, power passed to the brother of Johann II, Franz.

6. Bhumibol Adulyadej (1946 - 2016) (ruler for 70 years and 126 days)

Bhumibol Adulyadej is known as the monarch under whom Thailand went from an undeveloped state to a popular and well-known country. His reign spans an era during which the world has changed beyond recognition.

The future king was born on December 5, 1927, in Cambridge, Massachusetts, in the family of His Royal Majesty Prince Mahidon Adunyadet and Mom Sangwal. The young man received secondary and higher education in Switzerland, where he lived until the end of World War II. His older brother Ananda Mahidol also studied in Switzerland and held the title of King of Thailand. The king was found shot to death in his own bedroom in the palace on June 9, 1946. 18-year-old Bhumibol Adulyadej ascended the throne, but he was officially crowned on May 5, 1950, under the name Rama IX. The people of Thailand treated the new king as a symbol of the nation, and not as a real monarch. This was due to the fact that the royal family had lived abroad for a long time. Despite this, Rama IX repeatedly made important political decisions, and also enjoyed the right of veto. He was instrumental in the democratization of Thailand in the 1990s. For example, the king forced the resignation of Prime Minister General Suchind Krapayun, who brutally cracked down on pro-democracy demonstrators in Bangkok. The king was engaged in the development of agriculture, and this contributed to the emergence of Thailand as a major rice exporter. He used some of his money to fund more than 3,000 development projects, especially in rural parts of the country. The standard of living of some rural residents has improved significantly. Bhumibol also initiated the creation of a special squadron of aircraft. Under Rama IX, dairy farming was established in Thailand, and Thai schoolchildren in the 1960s were provided with milk as a source of calcium. The poverty rate of the population fell from 67% to 11%. The king did much to improve the living standards of the people in the border provinces of the country: during the development of these areas, hundreds of schools and hospitals were built in the mountain villages. At the initiative of the monarch, the Thai government negotiated peace and amnesty with communist insurgents from partisan groups operating in the central and northeastern regions of the country in the late 1970s. Parallel to this, Thailand hosted an American base for Southeast Asia.

Bhumibol Adulyadej held a patent for the creation of artificial clouds. He developed projects for bridges and dams, played the saxophone professionally, was fond of photography, painting and sailing, and designed racing yachts. In youth, he was also fond of music: Rama IX wrote compositions himself. He achieved the greatest success in jazz music. One of his compositions became the first number of the program in one of the musical productions on Broadway in the early 1950s. Bhumibol was also fluent in three European languages ​​- English, German and French

5. Louis XIV (1643 - 1715) (ruler for 72 years and 110 days)

King Louis XIV’s reign in France stretched for over 72 years. This was the real heyday of the French state in all areas: economic, military and cultural. The “Sun King” was born on September 5, 1638. He was a welcome child and heir to the French throne. Louis XIV became a king after the death of his father, Louis XIII, at 5 years old. Until 1661, the country was ruled by Cardinal Mazarin, while the young king grew up and received an education. He promised himself that he would not allow any restrictions on the power of the king, because he did not like the events of the Fronde. From that moment, Louis XIV became associated with absolute monarchy. He owns the famous phrase: "The state is me”.

The French king pursued clever and prudent policy. France conducted a large number of military campaigns, most of which ended successfully. Louis XIV actively strengthened his power. He carried out a military reform (the introduction of a special tax to create an army) and persecuted the Huguenots (through the abolition of the Nantes decree). The Sun King knew how to appoint talented people to important government posts, but in the second half of his reign, royal favorites began to take their places. During his reign, science, architecture and painting developed actively. Versailles became a symbol of absolutism and the rich life of the aristocracy of that time. France became a great power in Europe.

However, the state was weakened due to the high costs of the army and the cost of the aristocracy by the end of the Sun King's reign. Louis XIV left his descendants a country that needed changes.

4. Afonso I the Great (1112 - 1185) (ruler for 73 years)

Afonso I the Great is considered the founding father of Portugal. He was born on June 25, 1195 in Coimbra, after which he moved to Guimaraes. In this town he spent his childhood.  Portugal at that time was not an independent state. It was a province that was dependent on Castile and Leon. Afonso was driven out of the country by his mother at age 11. Her name was Teresa Leonskaya, and she ruled the county after the death of Heinrich of Burgundy in 1112. When Afonso was 14 years old, he gathered an army and invaded the territory of the county of Portugal. In the battle of Guimaraes, the young man defeated his mother’s army.  She was sent to the monastery. After that, the young earl began to rule the region. On July 26, 1139, Portugal became a kingdom, and Afonso I became its first ruler. The Portuguese felt like a nation thanks to the king. He also had 12 children, some of whom died in childhood.

3. Bhagwat Singh (1869 - 1944) (ruler for 74 years and 87 days)

The future Indian ruler prince was born on October 24, 1865. He ascended the throne of the principality of Gondal, when he was only 4 years old. It was one of many states in India. The country was ruled by the British Empire, but Bhagwat Singh ruled the state. He received a good education from Rajkumar College, which was located in Rajkot. After that, the Indian prince went to study medicine at the University of Edinburgh in Scotland. Bhagwat Singh studied there from 1892 to 1895. He was attracted by the ideas of enlightened absolutism, and pursued such an approach in his principality.

During his reign, the rapid development of infrastructure began, free education became available, and telegraph lines and high-quality railways appeared. The merits of the long-lived prince were noted at the highest level: the British monarch awarded him the title of Knight of the British Empire.

2. Bernard VII (1429 - 1511) (ruler for 81 years and 234 days)

For many centuries, the German people did not have a single state. Indeed, for a long time (962 - 1806) the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation existed. This empire included many dukedoms, counties, and other small states. One of these states was Lippe-Detmold. Its ruler, Bernard VII, lived a long and eventful life. He was born on December 4, 1428. When he was one-year-old, his father died, and he was proclaimed leader on August 11, 1929, the Lord of Lippe. Until 1433, his uncle Otto was the regent. After his death, the education of the future ruler was taken over by his great-uncle Didrich von Moers, who was the apostolic administrator of the Paderborn principality-bishopric. Bernard VII officially began to rule in 1446. He is considered the longest-serving monarch in European history.

During his time in power, the state significantly strengthened its economy and prestige in the eyes of other German powers. Bernard VII got the name "the Bellicose" because of his passion for military affairs. He died on April 2, 1511, after living for 83 years. This is an incredible age for the Middle Ages. Former Queen of the Netherlands Beatrix Wilhelmina Armgard is a direct descendant of Bernard VII.

1. Sobhuza II (1899 - 1982) (ruler for 83 years)

I am glad to present you the official winner of our ranking- Sobhuza II. I think the expression "Born and died on the throne" is perfect for this person. Throughout most of his life, Sobhuza II bore the title of Supreme Leader of Swaziland. He became King of Swaziland only on September 2, 1968, after which he reigned for 14 years until August 21, 1982.

The future king was born on June 22, 1899. After 4 months, he became the Supreme leader of Swaziland after the death of his father, Ngwane V. As the boy grew, power was in the hands of his relatives. The young man successfully received a secondary and higher education at the National Swazi School and the Lavdale Institute, which is located in the Eastern Cape Province of the Republic of South Africa. The coronation of Sobhuza II took place in 1921. So, his reign in power lasted for 61 years, also a world record. During this historical period, many events occurred, of which the Second World War and post-war decolonization should be singled out. The British Empire granted independence to Swaziland in 1968. This was a real success of the foreign policy of Sobhuza II. He became the 7th king of Swaziland that year too. In domestic policy, the king devoted much time to solving the problems of land surveying. Thanks to this, the country had significant income from natural resource extraction.

King Sobhuza II also led an active personal life. In different sources, historians indicate that he had from 60 to 80 wives.

Which long-reigning leader most fascinates you? Let us know below.

References

Link № 1. [https://www.britannica.com/biography/Basil-II]

Link № 2. [https://academickids.com/encyclopedia/index.php/Ferdinand_I_of_the_Two_Sicilies]

Link № 3. [https://www.britannica.com/biography/Franz-Joseph]

Link № 4. [http://www.friedrichiii.his-gis.net/index_en.html]

Link № 5. [http://about-liechtenstein.co.uk/index.php/history/royals/johann-2]

Link № 6. [https://www.britannica.com/biography/Louis-XIV-king-of-France]

Link №7. [https://www.geni.com/people/Afonso-I-o-Conquistador-rei-de-Portugal/6000000002244370573]

Link № 8. [http://www.royalark.net/India/gondal.htm]

Link № 9. [https://www.ed.ac.uk/alumni/services/notable-alumni/alumni-in-history/bhagvat-singh]

Link № 10. [https://www.revolvy.com/page/Bernard-VII%2C-Lord-of-Lippe]

Link № 11. [https://www.britannica.com/biography/Sobhuza-II]

Link № 12. [https://www.thoughtco.com/biography-sobhuza-ii-44585]

Link № 13. [https://www.ancient.eu/Kinich_Janaab_Pacal/]

Link № 14. [https://www.britannica.com/biography/Bhumibol-Adulyadej]