Amazing Women in the American Civil War

The role of women in the US Civil War has historically been understated. But, from nurses to spies and even those who disguised themselves as men to join the army, women played key roles. Ashley Goss explains.

Frances Clayton, a woman who disguised herself as a man to fight for the Union Army in the US Civil War.

There’s this misconception that the American Civil War was a man’s fight when in reality hundreds of women worked on the front lines of the war as healthcare providers, in espionage and the fight itself. Most men of the era wrote about women helping from the home front and many movies portray plantation women during the war. However, women did far more than just send food and clothing to the front lines. Not only did women have an active role in the Civil War, their efforts had a lasting impact on America as a whole. Nurses like Clara Barton and Ada W. Bacot traveled miles away from home to care for wounded soldiers. Spies like Harriet Tubman and Elizabeth Van Lew snuck behind enemy lines to smuggle information and even people back home. Most astonishingly, women like Frances Clayton, Sarah Edmonds, Marian McKenzie and hundreds more disguised themselves as men and fought on the front lines. However, not many discuss or even know about these brave women and the influence their service had on the Women’s Suffrage movement. Nurses, spies and soldiers changed the course of the Civil War and the ideas of womanhood.

The Cult of Domesticity

During the 1800s many Americans believed in the Cult of Domesticity. The Cult of Domesticity was essentially a guideline to how women should behave, and in turn, traits that men should avoid. Women were expected to follow four cardinal virtues; piety, purity, submission and domesticity. ‘True women’ were delicate, soft and weak, did not engage in strenuous physical activity, and were the center of the family and home.  Femininity also required a woman to seek a masculine working man while rejecting the values that work entailed, and the reverse was true for men. If any ‘respectable’ woman went against these rules, they were usually shunned and criticized. According to Catherine Beecher:

“Woman is to win everything by peace and love; by making herself so much respected, esteemed and loved… But the moment woman begins to feel the promptings of ambition, or the thirst for power, her aegis of defense is gone. All the sacred protection of religion, all the generous promptings of chivalry, all the poetry of romantic gallantry, depend upon woman’s retaining her place as dependent and defenseless, and making no claims, and maintaining no right but what are the gifts of honor, rectitude and love” (Grimke, 2020).

However, with the Civil War the idea of women staying in the home and being dependent on a husband started to change. Women were meant to be the moral center of the home and take care of their families. As more and more men were sent to the front, these barriers began to stretch outwards. The definition of home became debatable; moving from the house to the community, to the county, and eventually the country. Women started off by sending clothing and raising money for supplies. Plenty of women helped at home but many found that they needed to do more to help their men.

Nurses

Nurses played a vital role in assisting the army and helping them to continue the fight. Before the Civil War only men were allowed to be professional practicing nurses. Women were expected to be nurturing but not trained to handle a life-or-death situation, and certainly not paid for it. When the war started an adequate medical force was not a high priority for southern politicians because they thought the war would only last six months. As the war continued though and both sides needed more men to fight, women were integrated into nursing programs around the country. Most female nurses were treated more like housekeepers by the doctors and male nurses and not professionals, instead preparing food and keeping the soldiers’ company. According to Dorothea Dix a “respectable nurse” was over thirty, plain looking and refrained from wearing jewelry and hoop skirts (D’Antonio, 2002). However, as the body count kept rising these women started being treated as professional nurses and less like housekeepers. Even though it was jarring, women were ready for the challenge. After working hard for their new found independence and station it was hard for many women to return to their old submissive ways.

One woman who left home to become a nurse is Ada W. Bacot. Ada was an upper-class woman from South Carolina whose father was a plantation owner and a slaveholder. At the outbreak of the war all of Ada’s brothers saw some capacity of military service and her second husband was killed in a skirmish in Dandridge, Tennessee. When her first husband and two daughters died, all she wanted to do was serve her country. She applied for both a local and out of state nursing program but when she never received an offer, she went ahead to Virginia anyway to help at the South Carolina Association Hospital there. Like many nurses she found the hospital to be unhygienic and her role was very restricted. Ada’s job originally consisted of food preparation, laundry and reading the Bible to the men. However, as the wounded piled up and she became more acquainted with gruesome injuries, her role as a nurse was taken more seriously. She was now able to help more with injuries and had more of a say in the cleanliness of the hospital and her confidence grew along with her workload. In Ada’s own words, “tis gratification to be able to do anything for the poor men, they are so grateful. One man begged me to sit awhile with him he was so lonely” (Bacot, 1990). Now even though her drive to become a nurse had no feminist intent behind it, and she even believed in the Cult of Domesticity, by the end of the war Ada was financially independent, owned her own plantation and ran it herself. Even someone who fit most of the criteria for a ‘true woman’, Ada did not want to be dependent on or owe anyone anything.

Spies

Female spies also played a key role in the Civil War, helping with strategy, armory and even freeing slaves. Women were actually preferred over men in the first few years of the war because they were not searched as thoroughly as men. Those who crossed enemy lines hid arms, medicine, and other crucial material in hoop skirts, parasols, and corsets. Messages would also be written on buttons, silk, tissue and commonplace letters in imperceptible ink. Many female spies have been credited with helping in crucial battles. At the First Battle of Bull Run, Rose Greenhow channeled important information on timing, troop strength, and last-minute strategic decisions to Confederate generals. Belle Boyd became famous after she rushed across the battlefield to give Stonewall Jackson information on the Union troops he was about to attack. This job also required constant shifts in identity, and clearly required leaving home, and these women represented a slow rejection of any traditionally established set of values for women. In taking on the roles of men, these women challenged gender norms in the mid-nineteenth century.

One woman who volunteered her services to the war was Elizabeth Van Lew. Shortly after marrying, her mother Eliza, her father John moved them from Philadelphia to Richmond, Virginia and they integrated into Richmond’s high society. Despite her father owning about a dozen slaves, Elizabeth had a Quaker education in Philadelphia, so she was a staunch abolitionist and Unionist. After her father’s death Elizabeth and Eliza freed all of his slaves and even sold land to some of them cheaply. When the war broke out both Elizabeth and Eliza sided with the Union but made sure that those around them believed otherwise. They were able to convince General John Winder to allow them to help the Union soldiers in Libby Prison under the guise of female benevolence. They used this position to pass messages to and from prisoners and even helped some to escape. Eventually Elizabeth had several confidantes working inside and outside the prison to help with prison breaks and used her wealth and family mansion to hide and take care of escapees. In December of 1863 General Benjamin Butler heard about Elizabeth’s work and recruited her as a spy for the Union Army. By the end of the war Elizabeth amassed her own spy network of twelve people, employing both White and Black spies. During reconstruction President Ulysses S. Grant appointed Elizabeth the Postmaster General of Richmond. As Postmaster she used the office to promote women’s suffrage. However, many were not okay with a woman in political office, so as soon as Grant was out of office Elizabeth was replaced. She died in Richmond on September 25, 1900 at the age of ninety-two. Unfortunately, by the end of her life, Elizabeth “had spent much of her family’s fortune on behalf of Union soldiers and civilians, and ruined her family name in the eyes of her Richmond neighbors” by acting as a spy for the Union (Varon, 2005). Also, as good as she was, Elizabeth hated being labeled as a spy because it had negative connotations. In a letter to a friend she said, “I do not know how they can call me a spy serving my own country within its recognized borders…[for] my loyalty am I to be branded as a spy-by my own country, for which I was willing to lay down my life? Is that honorable or honest?” (Varon, 2005).

Disguised as men

The last and most radical group were women who disguised themselves as men to fight alongside their husbands and brothers. Many women in the North and South wanted to help in the war effort but felt their gender limited them; several stating “if only I was a man” in letters and diaries (Clinton, 1993). Some took the initiative to change that limiting factor by cutting off their hair, changing their name and enlisting. There are records of at least 250 women who served in the Union and Confederate armies, most of their names being lost to history. It was relatively easy to fool a regiment; many of the recruits were very young so it was common to see soldiers with no facial hair and a high-pitched voice. The uniform was also so oversized it easily hid a woman’s curves. Just like the men, these women also lived-in germ-infested camps, languished in appalling prisons, and died miserable but honorable deaths for their country. Both sides were aware that women were joining and although they did not really condone it, it was also hard to regulate. One Union soldier after the Battle of Reachtree Creek wrote to his wife about a wounded female rebel and said, “I hope our women will never be so foolish as to go to war or get to fighting” (Dunn, 1864). He must have been disappointed later.

One woman who not only served in the army in disguise but also served as a nurse and a spy to some degree was Sarah Edmonds. She was born Sarah Emma Edmondson but after suffering years of abuse from her father Sarah ran away and changed her last name to Edmonds. She was still worried her father might find her though, so to keep that from happening and to find a job she disguised herself as a man and changed her name to Franklin Thompson, getting a job as a Bible salesman in Hartford, Connecticut. When the war broke out Sarah was living in Michigan and being an ardent Unionist, she enlisted as a three-year recruit to the Second Michigan Infantry in 1861. She participated in the Seven Days Battle, the Battle of Williamsburg, the Second Battle of Bull Run, the Battle of Antietam, and the Battle of Fredericksburg. In fact, at the Battle of Fredericksburg she served as orderly to General Orlando M. Poe. During the battle she spent at least twelve uninterrupted hours riding back and forth under fire delivering messages between headquarters and the front. Throughout her service she acted as a foot soldier, a nurse, an orderly, a mail carrier and, according to her memoirs, a spy. She accepted every task with exceptional courage. Even twenty years later General Poe claimed that no one in the regiment had suspected that Thompson might have been a woman. In the spring of 1863 she contracted malaria and, out of fear of being discovered if she sought medical attention, she deserted. When the war ended, she wrote her memoirs, Nurse and Spy in the Union Army, and donated the profits to various soldiers’ aid groups. Although she never gave the name of her alias out of fear of being prosecuted for deserting. Finally, in 1884, she became the first woman to be awarded a military pension.

Conclusion

Many of these women’s stories go untold even though their work not only helped the war effort but the Woman’s Suffrage Movement as well. Before the Civil War a woman’s place was in the private sphere (home), and a man’s was in the public sphere. However, these women tested the boundaries of the ‘private sphere’ by asserting that their influence on the home extended to where ever their family was, so if their men needed them then they should follow. These stories helped showcase what women were capable of. Clara Barton claimed that their efforts advanced the social position of women by fifty years. Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony also used female front-line service as an example for why women should be equal to men who served alongside them. Ada Bacot, the most traditionally feminine of these women, even sent a letter to Stanton saying, “I am a property holder and tax payer [who] ought of right to vote and wish[es] to do so” (Varon, 2005). With their service and sacrifice these women didn’t just help their men but took the first steps toward the fight for Women’s Rights.

What do you think about the role of women in the US Civil War? Let us know below.

Now read about the role of women in the Confederacy in the US Civil War here.

Bibliography

Bacot, Ada W. Diary of Ada W. Bacot, 1860-1863. Edited by Jean V Berlin, Readex Film Products, 1990.

Clinton, Catherine, and Nina Silber. Divided Houses: Gender and the Civil War. Oxford University Press, 1993.

D'Antonio, Patricia. “Nurses in War.” The Lancet. The Lancet Publishing Group, December 2002. https://www.thelancet.com/pdfs/journals/lancet/PIIS0140-6736(02)11798-3.pdf.

Grimke, A., 2020. Grimke's Appeal. [online] Utc.iath.virginia.edu. Available at: <http://utc.iath.virginia.edu/abolitn/abesaegb4t.html> [Accessed 20 April 2020].

Long, Day by Day, 542; James L. Dunn to his wife, 22 July 1864, Correspondence of James L. Dunn (accession 8301), ALUVA; Judson Austin to his wife, 21 July 1864, Papers of Nina L. Ness (Judson L. Austin Letters), BHLUM.

Varon, Elizabeth R. Southern Lady, Yankee Spy: The True Story of Elizabeth Van Lew, a Union Agent in the Heart of the Confederacy. Oxford University Press, 2005.

The Unitarians and the Reduction in the Church’s Influence in America

Since America’s independence, the Christian church has often become less involved in delivering services for society and the government more so. Here, Daniel L. Smith discusses the Unitarian Church, the decline in the Christian church’s role in education, and the growth of the state.

Daniel’s book on mid-19th century northern California is now available. Find our more here: Amazon US | Amazon UK

Thomas Wentworth Higginson, an influential 19th and 20th century Unitarian.

American culture started where it was founded. It began in the heart of the North American colonist at the run-up to the American Revolution. Of course, over time, that changed. And as with any cultural change comes a stark political and religious divide. Historian Peter S. Field mentions that the "advent of a democratic political culture in the early American republic entailed the occasion of the first debates on the relationship between intellectuals and democracy in the United States.” Such was particularly the case in the 1830s in Brahmin Boston where, as Perry Miller once observed, "there could hardly be found a group of young Americans more numb to the notion that there were any stirring implications in the word democracy.”

Unitarian Church

Miller was right too. Americans in the 1830s were, for the most part, generally neutral in the way that American culture was beginning to shape out. There were ups and downs. With a new nation typically comes unlimited options on what direction to take the country regarding politics and culture. Mr. Field clarifies for us that the Unitarian Church is misleading church. It is a secular church body, and not a true Christian church. To understand how the religious fracture opened up a ‘Trojan horse’ for American thought, you must understand that "while the Bible is an important text for some Unitarian Universalists, many seek guidance from other sacred books and religious traditions." According to the Christian Apologetics and Research Ministry (CARM), "Unitarian Universalists generally agree that human reason and experience should be the final authority in determining the spiritual truth." If you join a Unitarian church, you will meet people from many different belief systems including secular humanists, agnostics, Christians, Catholics and so forth. Unitarians believe in moral authority, but not necessarily the divinity of Jesus. Their theology is thus opposed to the trinity of other Christian denominations.

The Unitarian Church is then a more secular body that was formed in the 19th century ‘vacuum’ created when God was beginning to become separated in public schools, different from traditional teaching. Unitarian Congregationalism is another name for their secular "church body." Transcendentalism is the name to those who are engaged in practicing spirituality who felt "too intellectual" and "in control" of their fate to admit their personal destiny is actually guided by a single higher power. “Transcendentalism proved to be almost a byword for an otherworldly, inchoate intellectual community that only marginally traveled beyond the parochial confines of eastern Massachusetts. Whether the logical outgrowth of Unitarian Congregationalism or its dedicated nemesis, Transcendentalism seemed altogether too intellectual, too elitist, and too apolitical to be of any great relevance to the unfolding social and political drama of the Jacksonian era.”[1]

Hairline fracture

There was a hairline fracture that split the thinking of American traditionalists and progressive intellectuals. The Unitarian Church was the catalyst, following transcendentalism in close second. Traditionalists (such as the clergy and church) began to slowly stop providing leadership in public schools and universities (prior to this it was a purely Christian education). Harvard (originally a Christian church) was taken over by Unitarians and as the quality of public education began to change (and at times decline), Horace Mann (the "father of progressive education") would convince the state of Massachusetts that the best way for education to grow would be to have the government take control, instead of non-governmental groups (like families and churches).

What followed afterwards was the move to “self-culture,” a human thought process of “me, myself, and I” which closely follows materialism. To break open a political divide for control and power, there must be a catalyst to enable this cultural shift. Thus, secular humanism was born. “By self-culture, [...] personal striving for the intellectual and spiritual complement to material pursuits... to convey their [American individual] belief in the virtually limitless human capacity for development of their spiritual faculties through the study of culture.” [2] It is this idea that begins to remove the personal importance of having a personal relationship with God through Jesus Christ - that is, Christianity.

As traditional American doctrines were neglected, the competing ideology of socialism took off. Karl Marx never had much influence in American society - until the country backslid from Christian principles and dabbled in greed. Thus, monopolies would form and grow. Wealth was accumulated, instead of employing the extra wealth to meet the needs of the poor and society. Self-culture (or individual interest), as Field would put it, began to replace the common good of the community.

The Trojan Horse

Marshall Foster writes that “in the loft restaurant above Peck’s restaurant at 140 Fulton Street in lower Manhattan, a group of young men met to plan the overthrow of the predominately Christian world-view that still pervaded America. At this first meeting five men were present: Upton Sinclair, 27, a writer and a socialist; Jack London, writer; Thomas Wentworth Higginson, a Unitarian minister; J.G. Phelps Stokes, husband of a socialist leader; and Clarence Darrow, a lawyer.

Their organization was called the Intercollegiate Socialist Society. Their purpose was to ‘promote an intelligent interest in socialism among college men and women.’ These men were ready to become the exponents of an idea passed on to them by an obscure writer named Karl Marx—a man who was supported by a wealthy industrialist who, inexplicably, believed in his theory of ‘the dictatorship of the proletariat.’ Although a small group in the beginning, these adherents of socialism more than succeeded in their task.

“By using the proven method of gradualism, taken from the Roman general, Quintus Fabius Maximus, these men and others who joined with them slowly infiltrated” the public schools in America. By 1912 there were chapters in 44 colleges. By 1917 there were 61 chapters of student study groups of the League of Industrial Democracy. “At that time John Dewey, the godfather of progressive education, was the vice-president of the league. By 1941 Dewey had become president and Reinhold Niebuhr, the liberal socialist theologian, was the treasurer.”[3]

Conclusion

The beginning of the end of traditional America had become entrenched. Dr. Stephen K. McDowell says that “the loss Christian tradition, character, and responsibility led to the failure of many banks in the early 1900s. To remedy this situation, power was granted to a centralized Federal Reserve Board in 1913. But this unbiblical economic structure and lack of character produced many more problems. Within 20 years, the Stock Market had crashed, and America was in the midst of the Great Depression.”[4] With the propagation of socialism, people were ready for Roosevelt's “New Deal,” such as Social Security and other welfare agencies, which ultimately set up the state as provider rather than God. The rest is history.

You can read a selection of Daniel’s past articles on: California in the US Civil War (here), Spanish Colonial Influence on Native Americans in Northern California (here), the collapse of the Spanish Armada in 1588 (here), early Christianity in Britain (here), the First Anglo-Dutch War (here), the 1918 Spanish Influenza outbreak (here), and an early European expedition to America (here).

Finally, Daniel Smith writes at complexamerica.org.

References

[1] Dr. Beliles, Mark A., and Stephen K. Dr. McDowell. America's Providential History: Including Biblical Principles of Education, Government, Politics, Economics, and Family Life, 253. 1989.

[2] Field, Peter S. 2001. ""the Transformation of Genius into Practical Power": Relph Waldo Emerson and the Public Lecture." Journal of the Early Republic 21 (3) (Fall): 467-493.

[3] Foster, Marshall, and Mary-Elaine Swanson. The American Covenant: The Untold Story, xvii. Mayflower Inst, 1983.

[4] Ibid., Dr. Beliles, Mark A., and Stephen K. Dr. McDowell, 250-251.

The Evolution of Ancient Greek Historiography

Historiography is composed of the principles, theories, or methodology of scholarly historical research and presentation. Here, James Zills looks at how historiography evolved in Ancient Greece, and includes consideration of Homer, Herodotus, and Thucydides.

Homer as shown in 1493 in the Nuremberg Chronicles.

Greek historiography arguably began with the epic poems of Homer; though many scholars debate his actual existence. Homer’s poems focused mainly on the heroes and gods of what would later become “Greek Mythology” during the Trojan War and the fall of Troy. The Homeric Epics narrowed the events in Greek history to individuals and lacked a timeline of events for historians to follow. The issue of validity of the poems created the need for subsequent historians to fill in the gaps and broaden the scope of Greek history. The evolution of Greek historiography began out of a necessity to fill in crucial gaps in historical events, timelines; the Homeric Poems and stories from bards filled with mythological gods, and undeniable inaccuracies required elimination. The gradual elimination of deities and a quest for accurate and reliable sources from historians such as Herodotus, Thucydides, and Polybius shaped the writing and reporting of history in Greece. 

The historiography of Ancient Greece arguably traces its roots back to the bards who would recite epic tales most notably the ones accredited to Homer. The issue with these epic poems is that they were passed down orally and fails to give details such as dates, and has such a narrow scope; it leaves historians questioning its authenticity from a historical perspective. The Iliadand Odyssey composed four to five hundred years after the fall of Troy giving those more of an imaginative or artistic narrative[1]. The narrowness was not the only issue later historians would have with Homer’s works; the mythical gods and implausible characters made the poems an unreliable source. When modern historians began to develop Greek historical writing, the value in myth or anything mythical began to fade.[2]

God(s) Were Never On Your Side

The gods that dominated and controlled the fate of the heroes in early Greek oral history came into question by Herodotus. He began to write history in prose and is known as the “father of history.”[3] While many may argue that the work of Herodotus fails to fall in line with the conception of historiography; he plays a pivotal role in the way history is recorded thus aiding in the evolution of Greek historiography. Herodotus’ view on history was much broader that his predecessors.  His expansion on history included the interactions of Greece with foreign countries and remote ages that were reliant on the information of witnesses instead of stories passed down for generations.[4] While his writings were reliant on some form of eyewitness accounts, he was not immune from the use of mythical events as a reference point in history.[5] Unfortunately, for Herodotus, this takes away the validity of his works, but does not diminish his role in the evolution of historiography in Greece. 

While the writings of Herodotus, not wholly clouded with mythical gods and events, he did use them on occasion. An outlandish version of Hercules written by Herodotus, places the Greek God in Egypt where he slaughtered thousands of Egyptians before his thwarted sacrifice[6]. This particular story is implausible due to the nature of the subject’s views of sacrifices and the absurdity of how one could kill so many. The prose approach that Herodotus took to writing or recording history is his contribution to the evolution of historiography in Greece. Perhaps his bilateral approach to fact and fiction was an attempt to appease those who still widely believed in mythology. As to whether Herodotus actually believed this is debatable; he believed much of the myth in Greek history to be “silly fables”.[7]

Herodotus focused on the cause and effect that events had on society correlating them with timelines from Egyptian history records. His works served to broaden the viewpoint given by the bards, inasmuch as he wrote about remote antiquity and all aspects of culture.[8] Herodotus’ greatest critic was Thucydides, who unlike his “competitor” focuses on politics and military matters. Thucydides eventually argued that myth only served as entertainment and lacked any factual value to history. Thucydides weakened the position myth held in historical accuracy by being critical of it and omitting it from his works. His believe was that while his work may be less appealing to the masses; the minority of the population who wanted truth are appreciative. 

Thucydides along with Herodotus differed in their approaches in documenting and presenting, but shared contrasting viewpoints on all things mythical. Thucydides only conceded that the belief in such entities was the guiding factor in historical event, but the idea of actual existence is “laughable”.[9] His controversial, yet influential works began to change public opinion on the actuality of mythological gods. The way in which Thucydides described the past in his works served to change the perception of historical events. Thucydides’ strict refusal to write on anything that he felt was unreliable in an attempt to present the most accurate historical accounts possible though underappreciated at the time became the norm for future historians. During the era of the Polis, the way in which history documentation began a slow and painful change with the help of historians like Herodotus and Thucydides. 

Too Good To Be True

Historical events became broader and depending on who the historian was, accounts came under more scrutiny. During this period, oral accounts still held weight, but the modern historians of the time evolved the way in which they documented it. The idea of documented history based on verifiable evidence began to hold, although slowly. The Hellenistic Age brought with it a more stringent attempt to preserve, capture, define, and evaluate history. Scholars set to preserve the accounts of previous historians as well as improve on their understanding.[10] The most notable historian to come from the Hellenistic Age is Polybius, who emphasized the importance of geographical knowledge and a sensible political view from historians.[11]

Polybius along with the rest of the scholars of the Hellenistic Age aided in the evolution of Greek historiography by searching for truth, motives, and the lessons behind historical events. They recorded history with much more accuracy than their predecessors. The introduction of new cultures to the citizens of Greece brought with it new methods of recording and chronicling time. The scholars of the Hellenistic Age began a trend of filling in the gaps and providing more accuracy to events that would evolve with future generations of Greek historians. The difference in viewpoints of past historians served to expand the horizons of Greek historians and those who read them. As curiosity and the search for accuracy grew with the scholars and their capacity for experimenting and adapting to cultural changes furthered the evolution of Greek historiography.[12]

From its critical beginning, Greek Historiography shows a need to evolve into historical accuracy instead of uplifting, heroic Epic Poems. While the entertainment value of Homeric Poems is timeless, Greek historians felt the necessity to expound upon them and historical fact to them. This eventually led to the debunking or omission of any information from the poems as Greek historiography transitioned to prose. The evolution of Greek Historiography began out of a necessity to fill in crucial gaps in historical events, timelines; the Homeric Poems and stories from bards filled with mythological gods, and undeniable inaccuracies required elimination. The gradual elimination of deities and a quest for accurate and reliable sources from historians such as Herodotus, Thucydides, and Polybius shaped the way history was written and reported in Greece. Those historians who were critical of their predecessors and questioned the validity of existing history helped shape the perception of history and aided in the evolution of Greek historiography.  

What do you think of Greek historiography? Let us know below.

Now you can read James’ article on fascism in 1930s America here.

[1] Ernst Breisach, Historiography: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern, 3rd ed Chicago; University of Chicago Press, 2007, 5.

[2] A.E. Wardman, "Myth in Greek Historiography." Historia: Zeitschrift Für Alte Geschichte 9, no. 4, 403.

[3] Arnaldo Modigliani, "Greek Historiography." History and Theory 17, no. 1, 2.

[4] Kurt Von Fritz, "Herodotus and the Growth of Greek Historiography." Transactions and Proceedings 

of the American Philological Association 67, 315.

[5] Fritz, 315.

[6] Wardman, 404.

[7] Encyclopedia Britannica

[8] Donald R. Kelly, Versions of History from Antiquity to the Enlightenment. New Haven: Yale University Press, 18.

[9] Breisach, 14.

[10] Ernst Breisach, 31.

[11] Momigliano, 8.

[12] Momigliano, 10. 

Bibliography

Breisach, Ernst. 1994. Historiography : Ancient, Medieval, and Modern. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Accessed December 8, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central.

Kelley, Donald R., ed. 1991. Versions of History from Antiquity to the Enlightenment. New Haven: Yale University Press. Accessed December 8, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central.

Momigliano, Arnaldo. "Greek Historiography." History and Theory 17, no. 1 (1978): 1-28. Accessed December 9, 2020. doi:10.2307/2504899.

Wardman, A. E. "Myth in Greek Historiography." Historia: Zeitschrift Für Alte Geschichte 9, no. 4 (1960): 403-13. Accessed December 9, 2020. http://www.jstor.org/stable/4434671.

Von Fritz, Kurt. "Herodotus and the Growth of Greek Historiography." Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association 67 (1936): 315-40. Accessed December 9, 2020. doi:10.2307/283244.

"Historiography - Greek Historiography." Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed December 8, 2020. https://www.britannica.com/topic/historiography/Greek-historiography.

The 1665 Great Plague of London: Part 1 - The Stay at Home Orders

In 2020 and now 2021, a large number of citizens found themselves homebound. While the stay-at-home orders were a novel experience for most people, the isolation of individuals with a contagious disease has a long history. While it is true that many suffered inconvenience and the disruption of normal routines, the modern home is so well equipped we weren't lacking for much in the way of necessities and comforts. Additionally, those quarantined at home were able to venture outside to replenish supplies or through delivery is needed. It has not always been so easy. The worst outbreak of bubonic plague in early modern England took place in London in 1665. Considering this experience can give us pause to give thanks that we live in the early twenty-first century.

In the first part, Victor Gamma looks at plagues in 17th century England and how people in London during the 1665 Great Plague endured quarantine.

A cart for transporting the dead in London during the 1665 Great Plague. Source: Wellcome Trust, available here.

From 1574 English law stated that members of a house containing a plague victim were not allowed, "to come abroad into any street, markete, shoppe, or open place of resort." If any one from an infected house needed to come out for any reason they were required to carry a white rod, at least two feet in length for all to see. At each outbreak of plague the College of Physicians met to formulate a plan of action. This would include written and published advice on managing a pandemic. This had taken place in the 1580s, 1630 and 1636. In April of 1665, knowing an epidemic was likely, the College of Physicians recommended a two-fold approach to containing the spread of plague: isolation in pesthouses or quarantine of infected persons in their homes. A pest or plague house was a structure used to forcibly quarantine infected individuals. One obvious measure was the isolation of infected individuals or those suspected of carrying the dreaded disease. The weak infrastructure and resources of the time made household quarantine a necessity. Some parishes, in fact, had only recently begun a serious effort to construct an adequate number of pesthouses. To illustrate the sluggish nature of plague response: in St. Martin’s a well was dug for a pesthouse on July 24, 1836, 4 months after the plague made its appearance.

1665 plague

The plague of 1665 was to dwarf the earlier plagues. There was no way to know this, of course, but to meet the looming crisis the College began regular meetings in May 1665 at the request of the Privy Council. The Council specifically enjoined the Physicians to review the previous advisory statements and add anything they deemed would improve the effectiveness in stopping the spread of this new outbreak. Within two weeks, on May 25 they had a “little book” of 44 pages published entitled “Certaine necessary directions, as well for the cure of the plague, as for preventing the infection: with many easie medicines of small charge, very profitable to his Majesties subjects.” The Physicians saw no reason to change the practice of shutting up infected people in their houses. The 1636 advice had read:

If any person shall have visited any man, knowne to be Infected of the Plague, or entered willingly into any knowne infected house, being not allowed: the house wherein he inhabiteth, shall be shut up for certaine dayes by the Examiners direction

This direction was given in spite of the fact that in 1630 the Privy Council had recommended pesthouses as a “better and more effectual course” to reduce the plague. In the Great Plague, the order to shut up all infected houses was ordered officially on July 1, 1665. The only way a person in an infected house could move legally was to go to another property they themselves owned or to a pesthouse. Once an infected house was identified it was to be “shut up” for forty days. Records indicate that this policy was quite unpopular and that residents attempted to avoid this fate as often as possible. 

The Privy Council handed its directives to the Lord Chief Justice, who in turn gave it to the magistrates. Attempts were made to keep the proceedings secret but word of mouth soon gave wings to the terrifying reality that another outbreak of the bubonic plague was at hand. Besides, a member of the Royal Society named John Graunt published a regular report of deaths in the city, called “Bills of Mortality.” For a subscription of four shillings a year anyone could read these and easily see that London was in the throes of a dreaded “visitation” - and this one promised to be worse than that which held the City in its grip just ten years earlier.  

Identifying the Sick

Once someone in a household died, the government sent out “searchers” to ascertain the cause of death. This would come in the form of an old woman. It was her job to report her findings to the parish clerk and especially to alert authorities if plague was present so that the house might be shut up. Usually old women who had no other means of support filled this occupation. This offered some hope to the victim’s family of not being labeled as infected of plague because these old women were notoriously unscientific in their methods. First, they had no real training in medical diagnosis. Typical opinions rendered by the searchers on cause of death included vague terms such as "frighted", "rising of the lights", or "suddenly."  Anyone at all elderly was most likely reported as dying of "age." To mitigate this problem, the government directed surgeons to assist the women with their work. The accuracy of reporting was undermined, though, by corruption. The women were quite susceptible to bribery. These women were invariably of the poorer classes and they were not likely to be fussy about the rules if their palms were warmed with silver. The reality was, they almost needed bribes to keep body and soul together. This hard fact outweighed the solemn oath they had taken to "faithfully, honestly, unfeignedly, and impartially" report the cause of death. If there was a danger of the searchers reporting an instance of plague, a few shillings or a bottle of gin would often suffice to persuade the woman to change her verdict. In spite of the reputation of the searchers, many families felt compelled to take any desperate measure which might avoid the living hell of home imprisonment. A family with a sick member would often attempt to disguise signs of plague as much as possible. For example, to mask the symptoms they might hold a piece of ice or a cloth soaked in cool water against the face of the deceased in hopes of hiding signs of inflammation.

Despite these efforts, thousands of houses were marked as infected or as “plague” houses. This would include everyone in the home, infected or not. The “clarke” or sexton of each parish was then directed to post a sign on the house which read “Lord Have Mercy Upon Us.” A large cross of one foot in length would be nailed or painted onto the front door. The twenty-day countdown to the end of the quarantine would commence either when all infected persons were cured or carried off dead. Families tried to reason with the magistrate that if, of the twenty people in the house, only one was sick - why should all be imprisoned within the walls? These pleas normally fell on deaf ears. If any member of that household appeared in public they would be liable to a jail term of forty days or a fine of £5 (some $1,100 in today's money). Many attempted to bribe the authorities or flee before the watchmen arrived.

Quarantine

Once marked, the inhabitants were now prisoners in their own home until the property was declared free from infection for at least twenty days. Unlike our own time, there would be no trips to the store to stock up on supplies and no ordering of delivery service. Far from it, for most people would avoid these houses at all costs. Word spread rapidly about which streets had “shut up” houses. Samuel Pepys noted in his diary that even when a distance from a shut up house he would sometimes be warned away: "...a gentleman walking by called to us to tell us that the house was shut up of the sickness. So we with great affright turned back, being holden to the gentlemen; and went away." Those people who were compelled to walk the street that contained plague houses would stay in the middle of the street to avoid infected persons and any odors emanating from the house, which were believed to carry plague. As a further incentive to keep people away, the law also stated that persons guilty of unauthorized entering of an infected house would have their own house shut up.   

Aware of the large number of attempted escapes, government directives were very specific about enforcement. The unpublished minutes of the Privy Council contained an order that “whosoever shall do the contrary shall be shutt up in the same house as in an infected house for soe long a time as the … Justices of the Peace shall (think) meete.” Watchmen were sent to guard the structure for the length of the quarantine. An armed guard would be posted outside the house with orders to prevent anyone from leaving. In the evening a night watchman would come to his relief. They would most likely be armed with a sharpened halberd. The watchmen were not to be merely guarding the house; they were instructed to give aid as needed, even at their own expense. Additionally, parishes did have systems in place to minister to needs of shut up houses. In practice, of course, this generosity did not always occur and the family would sometimes have to decide whether to starve or sell their few possessions. They would begin gathering up anything of value; cooking utensils, candles, items of furniture, even floor mats. These items would be handed through the window to the watchman. Before departing to sell the items, the watchman would go all around the house nailing up all doors and windows. Could the watchman be trusted? The answer too often came when he returned but a pittance for the few pitiful goods offered, claiming he was only able to sell the candles. Some attempted to trick the guards into leaving his post on some pretense. If the watchman were simple enough to be fooled, the inhabitants could break off the lock while he was gone, gather whatever items could be carried on the door or through some other means, and escape. To avoid that possibility, the guards placed padlocks and bolts on doors and shutters.

Now you can read part 2 on Plague houses and whether home quarantine was worth it here.

Robert Todd Lincoln and the Curse of the Presidential Assassination

Robert Todd Lincoln (1843-1926) was the son of Abraham Lincoln and an influential figure in his time. He was also near the scene at the time of three US presidential assassinations spanning over 35 years. Samantha Arrowsmith explains.

A young Robert Todd Lincoln.

There are some figures in history that transcend their time, even if we are sometimes largely ignorant of why it is that we remember them. Cleopatra, Alexander the Great, Genghis Khan, Napoleon, Abraham Lincoln, Einstein and Hitler are all names that echo down the ages, for good or ill, and who even the most history-phobic of us will recognize.

To be the child of one of these would not have been an easy place to occupy, and Robert Todd Lincoln bore the weight of that position for most of his life. He is remembered as an ‘unsympathetic bore[i]’, tainted by his relationship with his successful father and his mentally ill mother[ii]. Yet Robert carried another burden: if such a thing as a curse exists, then Robert was encumbered by one of the worst – the curse of the presidential assassination.

Abraham Lincoln: April 15, 1865

Robert’s first encounter with a presidential assassination was that of his own father, Abraham Lincoln, 16th President of the United States. It was an event touched by coincidence and regret, and one which had a profound effect on his eldest son.

Robert’s relationship with his father is considered by many historians to have been strained[iii]. As the son of an aspiring politician, Robert rarely saw his father during his childhood and their bond was undoubtedly weaker than the one Abraham had with his other sons. Yet it would be overstating their difficulties to say that Robert was estranged from his father; on the day of the assassination they had spent several hours alone together before the President went to a cabinet meeting.[iv] That evening he and his parents had dined together at the White House and he remembered some years later how his father had asked him to come to the Ford Theatre with them. Not attending was one of his greatest regrets[v]. In a 1921 article based on the recollections of Robert to a friend, he believed that:

“My seat must have been placed in the door alcove…which was covered with a curtain…He [Booth] would have encountered a psychological obstacle.…To open the door and fire at an unsuspecting man is one thing, but to fire after he had found his way blocked is another. I do not believe that he would have attempted it if I had been there.”[vi]

Despite being shot in the head by John Wilkes Booth, the President was not killed instantly and was carried to a house belonging to William Petersen where he died at 7:22am the next morning with Robert at his bedside. Despite his previous stoic behavior, The Secretary to the Navy noted that he ‘gave way on two occasions to overpowering grief and sobbed aloud…’[vii].

The event affected Robert not only as a son but also as a future government official, and one letter in particular shows how he was still conscious of the danger to the incumbent president 24 years later:

‘I have no doubt that President Arthur will take care of himself; but he is undoubtedly liable to be killed by some crazy person or by a fanatic who would be willing to do the deed for the notoriety which might be gained thereby.’[viii]

In an ironic twist of fate, Abraham Lincoln had previously had a great deal to be grateful to the Booth family for. His killer’s elder brother, the celebrated actor Edwin Booth, had saved Robert from possible injury or even death at New Jersey train station in either 1863 or 1864. Horrified by his brother’s actions, it gave Edwin comfort to know that he had been of some benefit to the Lincoln family and Robert was able to talk about the incident without any bitterness, recalling in 1918 that ‘I never again met Mr. Booth personally, but I have always had most grateful recollection of his prompt action on my behalf’.[ix]

James Garfield: September 19, 1881

Four months into his presidency, James Garfield advertised his intended plan to move to New Jersey for the summer. He would take the train from Washington’s Baltimore and Potomac railroad station on July 2, 1881 and among the members of his cabinet there to see him off would be his Secretary of War, Robert Todd Lincoln.

Up until that point the only President to have been assassinated was Lincoln’s father, so an attempt on the President was considered both a rare and somewhat unlikely event. James Garfield believed that the President should be seen by the people and he therefore took few precautions when in public. He had once written:

‘The letter of Mr. Hudson of Detroit, with your endorsement came duly to hand. I do not think there is any serious danger in the direction to which he refers - though I am receiving, what I suppose to be the usual number of threatening letters on that subject. Assassination can no more be guarded against than death by lightning; and it is not best to worry about either.’[x]

Unfortunately, Charles Guiteau had decided that the President’s death was a political necessity. His initial anger at being overlooked for a diplomatic position in Paris (which he had convinced himself was his right due to a speech he had written in support of Garfield during the election) gradually turned to paranoia. He was convinced that Garfield disliked him due to his allegiance to the Stalwart faction of the Republican Party and eventually that Garfield was a traitor and dictator.[xi] He wasn’t subtle in his intentions, going so far as to send the President letters and asking for a tour of the prison where he believed he would be incarcerated after the event.[xii] A letter taken from his pocket read:

‘The President’s tragic death was a sad necessity, but it will unite the Republican Party and save the Republic…I had no ill-will toward the President. His death was a political necessity.’[xiii]

Robert Lincoln had come to the station to let the President know that he was unable to join him on the trip as originally planned, but what he witnessed must have brought back terrible memories. Reportedly only 40 feet away from the President, he watched Guiteau step out of the shadows, walk up to the President and fire two shots, one to the arm and the other to the back. As with his father’s shooting, he showed some elements of calmness, attending the fallen President, calling for a gunshot wound specialist, Dry Bliss, and putting soldiers onto the streets to ensure calm.[xiv]

As with President Lincoln, Garfield did not die immediately; in fact, it took 80 days for him to succumb, not to the gunshot wound, but to the septicemia caused by his doctors. In September 1881, Robert Todd Lincoln attended a second funeral of an assassinated president.[xv]

William McKinley: September 14, 1901

The Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo was intended to showcase American achievement with the slogan ‘commercial wellbeing and good understanding among the American Republics’[xvi]. President William McKinley, six months into his second term as the 25th President, was attending as part of his American tour. He was a popular president and the speech he gave there on September 5 was attended by a vast audience[xvii]. The next day, he toured Niagara Falls before returning to the fair for a public reception at the Temple of Music. McKinley enjoyed meeting the public and despite Secretary Cortelyou’s reservations, he was determined to attend, putting the reception back onto his schedule every time it was removed. Cortelyourelented but ensured that there would be ample security at the venue: the President’s own protection officer, George Foster, plus two other Secret Service Agents, the Exposition police, four Buffalo detectives and a dozen artillerymen[xviii]. But the precautions were to no avail. The day was hot and the usual precaution that everyone in the line should approach the President empty handed was abandoned, along with the habit that Foster should stand beside the President. By the time Foster realized that the approaching man, with his hand covered by a handkerchief[xix], was a danger, it was too late and at 4:07pm unemployed factory worker turned political anarchist, Leon Czolgosz, shot McKinley twice in the abdomen.

A few hours later Robert Todd Lincoln stepped off of a train at Buffalo station on his way to the Exposition to be greeted by a telegram reading:

“President McKinley was shot down by an anarchist in Buffalo this afternoon. He was hit twice in the abdomen. Condition serious.”[xx]

Lincoln missed the actual moment of the shooting, but he immediately went to see the President and spent some time with him that evening and again two days later. Lincoln believed that the President was remarkably well given what had happened to him, but eight days later on September 14, McKinley died of gangrene. 

The event could only have brought back more memories for Lincoln and he did not disguise his sadness when he wrote to the new President, Theodore Roosevelt:

“I do not congratulate you, for I have seen too much of the seamy side of the Presidential Robe to think of it as an enviable garment.”[xxi]

A Certain Fatality

When Robert Lincoln died in 1926, there had been three presidential assassinations and he had a connection to them all. As historian Todd Arrington has observed, that might not have been unusual for a man involved in politics as Lincoln was[xxii], but, on a personal level, it must have been a painful situation.  

‘There is a certain fatality about presidential functions when I am present,’ Lincoln is supposed to have quipped. Perhaps the more telling quote is the one he gave to the New York Times the day after the shooting of James Garfield in Washington: ‘How many hours of sorrow I have passed in this town.’[xxiii].

 

What do you think of Robert Todd Lincoln? Let us know below.

Now, you can read Samantha Arrowsmith’s article on 7 occasions Europe changed the time here.

[i] Lincoln: A Foreigner’s Quest, Jan Morris, 2001, p128 

[ii] Meet Robert Todd Lincoln, The Estranged Son of the 16th President who had his mother committed, Lauren Zmirich, 2019 

[iii] Lincoln’s Boys: The legacy of an American father and an American family, Robert P Watson and Dale Berger, 2010

[iv] Giant in the Shadows: The life of Robert T Lincoln, Jason Emerson, 2012, p99 

[v] Emerson, p107

[vi] The Lincoln Financial Foundation Collection

[vii] Emerson, p105

[viii] Letter from Robert Lincoln 28 September 1881

[ix] How Edwin Booth Saved Robert Todd Lincoln’s Life, Jason Emerson, 2005

[x] Letter from President Garfield to Sherman, November 1880

[xi] Killing the President: assassinations, attempts and rumored attempts on US Commanders-in-Chief, Willard M Oliver and Nancy E Marion, 2010, p44

[xii] Oliver and Marion, p44

[xiii] The New York Times 3 July 1881

[xiv] ‘A Certain Fatality’ Robert Todd Lincoln and the Presidential Assassinations, Todd Arrington, 2014

[xv] Funeral of President Garfield: Announcement to the Public

[xvi] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-American_Exposition

[xvii] You can view the President giving the speech at https://www.loc.gov/item/00694342/  

[xviii] JFK assassination records: Appendix 7: a brief history of presidential protection

[xix] The New York Times 7 September 1901

[xx] Arrington, 2014

[xxi] Ford’s Theatre National Historic Site

[xxii] Arrington, 2014

[xxiii] Arrington, 2014

Ancestor Worship in Ancient China

Ancestor worship has a long history in China. In fact it goes back millennia to the time of Yangshao culture. Here, Khadija Tauseef explains the importance of this and how it evolved over time in ancient China.

Confucius, painted by Wu Daozi.

“Ancestors

Hear my plea,

Help me not to make a fool of me,

And to not uproot my family tree,

Keep my father standing tall”

 - An extract from the movie, Mulan.

The Disney classic allows us a glimpse into the tradition of ancestor worship that has been around for centuries. Mulan’s father is seen sitting before the ancestral tablets, praying for Mulan. Throughout the film there are continuous references to the Fa ancestors, who even appear; showing that they are watching over Mulan and her family. They try to help their descendants, ensuring that no dishonor was brought on to the family. 

China has a grand tradition of ancestral worship that has been carried forward through the ages. However, the term ‘ancestor worship’ was coined by a British philosopher and sociologist Herbert Spencer in 1885. It is based on the belief that the souls of the deceased have power and influence of the lives of the living. How did this ancient practice start and what sort of an impact does it have on the people?

Celestial Beginnings

The concept of ancestor worship can find its roots within Chinese folk tradition. It emerged from religious beliefs about the afterlife and that part of the soul continues to reside on the earth. The earliest mention regarding ancestor worship dates from Yangshao society (from c. 5000 BCE). Unfortunately, due to the lack of writing from the period, we do not know much about Neolithic religious practices. All that changed with the coming of the Shang dynasty (1600-1046 BCE), who brought about the existence of writing. Oracle bones or jiaguwen discovered in archaeological tombs, date as far back as 1250 BCE, giving us our first glimpse into ancient beliefs. 

The major focus of the Shang was towards the Shangdi (the Supreme Being), who was believed to be the link between the heavenly beings and the people. At the time ancestor worship also existed; many believed that the success of crops and the health of the family was connected to the veneration of ancestors. If the ancestors were happy then they would provide their family with wealth and prosperity. However, if they were displeased then great tragedies would befall the family. In addition, it was widely believed that the ancestors visited with Shangdi, therefore it became even more important to make sure the deceased were happy.

Dynasty Shift

The Shang were soon replaced by the Zhou dynasty, one of China’s longest lasting ancient dynasties. Lasting from 1046 BCE to 256 BCE, this dynasty played host to a great cultural, artistic and intellectual renaissance. During this period the concept of Yin (feminine) and Yang (masculine) was developed as “an earthly reflection of heavenly harmony”. This concept helped develop the idea of ancestral worship further by helping explain how the soul of the deceased is affected. 

The belief was that the soul of every human consists of two parts, the Po (relating to yin energy and the grave) and the Hun (relating to yang energy and ancestral tablets). Therefore, when a person dies, their soul would be split in two - the Po goes to the afterlife to be reborn and the Hun remains on earth, close to the ancestral tablet. This shows why many believe that the ancestors remain among the living and keep a watch on them - if the family honors them and provides them with appropriate sacrifices the family will have a prosperous and wealthy life. Festivals were often held to celebrate not just the gods but also the ancestors. The people would perform rituals in which they would recite hymns, glorifying the gods and ancestors. 

“The drums are put in place, and their beats summon the spirits. The descendants call upon their ancestors to arrive, the sound of flutes and stone chimes adding to the noise, until “bells and drums fill the air / and the dancers seem in flight / our visitors appear.”” (Clements, 2019: 43).

These celebrations were often led by the shamans or wu. Shamans were thought of as a conduit for communicating with the ancestors. They conducted the funerary ceremonies and other events that required their presence. 

Unfortunately, not all those who die are able to take their place among the pantheon of ancestors. According to ancient texts each human has their own predestined span of life and dying before that time as a result of murder, war, suicide, a natural disaster or an epidemic, means they cannot become ancestors. These souls returned to haunt the living, and were known as Ligui (pernicious ghost). These Ligui were believed to be the cause of numerous illnesses and misfortunes. The only way to deal with them was through exorcisms performed by shamans.

Throughout the Zhou dynasty, ancestors were highly revered, not just among the common people. Even the emperors built grand shrines for their royal ancestors, ensuring that they would watch over them from the heavens and secure their reigns. 

Confucian Influence

After the decline of the Zhou dynasty, many religious practices came under attack. China was divided, with warring states fighting to exert dominance. It was in this age of violence and war that Confucius was born. In order to find a solution for the turmoil of his age, Confucius looked to the practices and knowledge of the past. In particular, he looked to the era of the early Zhou kings and their peaceful rule. 

Confucius found that Zhou society had ancient rights, customs and etiquette that brought people together and ensured peace. Therefore, Confucius wanted to bring back these practices so that the people would be able to live harmoniously. One important right was the ancestral rights that were necessary for keeping harmony between the human world and the cosmos.

Professor Michael Nylan explains the importance of the ancestors thus:

“When we talk about many of the rights, what we are talking about is ‘blood sacrifice’. Offerings of blood and wine are offered to the ancestors and the gods in heaven. The ancestors live in heaven and become themselves gods in the afterlife.”

The reimagining of the ancestors in a sense brings them back to life with each offering. Confucius emphasizes the importance of family and the connection to the past, and this helps embody the belief in the ancestors - because honoring them helps us maintain a connection with relatives or loved ones that have passed on and keeps us rooted in the past. Confucius’ teaching greatly influenced the people of China and heralded a new era of ancestor worship that has lasted to this day.

Conclusion

Even today, people have tablets dedicated to their deceased relatives and provide offerings to sustain them. Some of these practices may seem outdated and out of place within our modern life but if one feels connected with the past and carries it with them, then these traditions will continue to flourish. Personally, just the thought of having a loved one close by and being able to share precious moments with them, sounds like a perfect dream.

What do think of ancestor worship in China? Let us know below.

Bibliography

1)     Gombrich, E.R. A little History of the World. Yale University Press: London, 2005.

2)     Oliveto, Joe. Chinese Ancestor Worship Explained: History, Traditions & More. https://www.joincake.com/blog/chinese-ancestor-worship/

3)     Cartwright, Mark. Ancestor Worship in Ancient China. https://member.ancient.eu/article/1132/ancestor-worship-in-ancient-china/

4)     Clements, Jonathan. A Brief History of China. Tuttle Publishing: Singapore, 2019. 

5)     Ancestor Worship. https://family.jrank.org/pages/86/Ancestor-Worship.html

6)     Ancestral Worship in China. https://family.jrank.org/pages/84/Ancestor-Worship-Ancestor-Worship-in-China.html

7)     Ghosts in Chinese Religion. http://www.religionfacts.com/chinese-religion/ghosts

8)     Lagerwey, John and Marc Kalinowski. Early Chinese Religion Part One: Shang through Han (1250BCE – 220AD). Brill Publishing; Netherlands, 2008. 

America’s 1957 Civil Rights Act: Modern Reconstruction?

The 1957 Civil Rights Act in the US is often seen as not being a great success. However, here James Hernandez argues that the Act was very important as it led the way to the greater changes of the 1960s and beyond - it could even be seen as the start of ‘Modern Reconstruction’.

Lyndon B. Johnson (left) and Richard Russell (right) in 1963. The two Democrats were on opposing sides in the argument around the 1957 Civil Rights Act.

Arguably the fountainhead for the modern civil rights movement, the 1957 Civil Rights Act is seemingly excluded from its rightful place in mainstream history as it never fully delivered its promised potential. But nonetheless, the legislation should be celebrated for its symbolic significance as it demonstrated a growing acceptance towards the Civil Rights Movement and the federal government’s willingness to intervene with state governments to ensure African-Americans were provided with equal extents of the law. As the advancement of Civil Rights remains pertinent in American society today, the beginning of what will soon be widely recognized as Modern Reconstruction originates from the forgotten act as it established the fundamental basis for African-American voter protection and influenced the creation of President Johnson’s landmark Civil Rights agenda. 

1950s America

America was in dire need of a societal evaluation as the country fell deeper into the polarizing void that divided the nation over the issue of segregation during the 1950s. The claimed “free world” of the United States was contradicted by racial injustices present in the nation and was heavily criticized by the Eastern Bloc in the Cold War. Despite Brown v. Board delivering a much needed ruling in favor of desegregation and generating invaluable optimism to what would become the Civil Rights Movement, the new legislation was not strong enough to supersede the actions of pro-segregationist state governments that worked to uphold de facto segregation practices within the capacity of state law. The South became the epicenter for racial conflict as Southern Dixiecrats continually condoned the violent behavior of white segregationists. President Eisenhower soon recognized the growing division of the country and finally decided to put his foot down on the issue along with the help of Attorney General Herbert Brownell.

President Eisenhower’s powerful commitment to social justice played a key role in influencing and supporting Brownell’s legislative proposal that was soon introduced in the House on March 11, 1956 (H.R. 6127). The proposed law aimed to extend the security of African-American voting rights under the 15th Amendment as only 20% of the population was registered to vote as discriminatory provisions such as literacy tests were still ubiquitous in the South. Other key components included the implementation of a Civil Rights Commission to further analyze investigations regarding the denial of rights to minorities, the creation of an assistant attorney general position specifically to aid civil rights in the Department of Justice, the expansion of federal authority to interfere with state laws to ensure equal rights were being properly secured by states, and the enactment of further provisions that would protect African-Americans from unfair circumstances in court.

Lyndon B. Johnson’s role

Though the bill had received support from both parties, the passage of the proposed legislation carried the divisive potential to tear apart the Democratic Party. The legislation found an unlikely supporter in Senate Majority Leader Lyndon B. Johnson as he chose to lead passage efforts to maintain stability within his party and to garner support for his future presidential campaign. Johnson’s support was quite surprising considering the fact that he had voted against civil rights legislation only a year before. Whether he truly had a change of heart regarding the issue or if his intentions were really to advance his political career, Johnson would go on to champion civil rights in his future presidency.

Senator Richard Russell of Georgia led Southern Democratic opposition to the legislation as Johnson gained momentum. Russell famously claimed that the bill would create “unspeakable confusion, bitterness and bloodshed in a great section of our common country” and was essentially “a potential instrument of tyranny and persecution” when referring to Part III of the bill which looked to extend federal authority. Russell cited a parallel between the proposition and the failed Civil Rights Act of 1866 which authorized the federal government’s usage of armed forces in order to ensure the implementation of civil rights provisions, further insinuating the likelihood of violence occurring if the bill was enacted. Russell’s efforts proved effective as Johnson soon surrendered all hope of including an extension of federal powers in the bill. In spite of facing substantial revisions, and a record setting single-person filibuster by Dixiecrat Strom Thurmond, the act was finally signed into law by Eisenhower on September 9, 1957.

In perspective

The 1957 Civil Rights Act was nowhere near as effective as subsequent legislation but the newly created bill was a promising stepping-stone. It was the first civil rights legislation put into law since Reconstruction and it set the stage for what would soon become one of the most influential reform eras in history - the 1960s. Despite historians citing the bill as a failure, the act should be recognized as the official beginning of the modern Civil Rights Movement. The movement would not have properly progressed without the federal embracement achieved through the 1957 act and further racial oppression would have resulted. If it were not for Martin Luther King Jr.’s untimely assassination, Johnson’s unexpected decision to not seek re-election, and the government diverting a large portion of their attention towards the escalating tensions of the Vietnam War in 1968, the Civil Rights Movement would have greatly progressed through the 1970s and 1980s and racial equality would have been more widely prevalent. Moreover, the Civil Rights Act of 1957 would have inevitably fulfilled its potential and obtained its rightful place in American history.

What do you think of the 1957 Civil Rights Act? Let us know below.

How did we get Modern Comic Book Characters? The Story of Dick Tracy and the Shadow

Many of the most successful movies each year are based on comic book characters, such as Superman and Batman. But what was the influence for modern comic book characters? Here, Daniel Boustead explains how it was the influence of the pioneering characters of Dick Tracy and the Shadow.

Promotional Image for the CBS Radio series The Detective Story Hour. The program included the Shadow.

The Comic and Pulp Magazine characters in the 1920s were stale and lacked depth. The Shadow, which was first a radio show, then a Pulp Magazine Novels star helped introduce innovations that are still found in comics to this day. The Dick Tracy comics also provided succeeding comics with some important literary character traits. The pioneering work of Dick Tracy and the Shadow creators would influence the work of Detective Comics (DC) and Marvel Comics. Dick Tracy and the Shadow were the epitome of comics because they served as the catalyst and provided the parameters for so many comics to follow.

Comics in the 1920s

Zorro, which was created by Johnston McCulley for pulp magazine’s All-Story Weekly in August of 1919, followed the same plot, literary, character conventions, and character traits of the swashbuckling heroes of old like Robin Hood, Don Quixote, Scarlet Pimpernel, The Three Musketeers, and Cyrano de Bergerac([1]). The literary trope of a superhero leading a double life was established first in 1905 in the book The Scarlet Pimpernel, which was based off a 1903 play of that same name (9). Science Fiction character Buck Rogers, which was created by Phillip Francis Nowlan in August 1928 for pulp magazine Amazing Stories, followed the same literary, character, and plot devices that were found in works such as those by Jules Verne, Edgar Rice Rice Burroughs, and H.G. Wells ([2]). The big comic star of the day, Popeye the Sailor Man, which was created by E.C. Segar, and first appeared in the newspaper comics on January 17, 1929 was largely a cutesy, silly and innocent work ([3]). Had Dick Tracy and the Shadow not been created there would not be the comic book fan conventions, movies and multi million industry that we see now.

The Shadow

Dick Tracy and the Shadow introduced three important elements that are found in superhero comic book characters right to this day: sometimes superpowers, graphic violence, and grotesque villains.  This was not previously seen in Zorro, Buck Rogers, or Popeye. Also, these three elements (more often than not) dealt with earth-based subjects rather than what Buck Rogers’ interplanetary adventures covered.

The Shadow’s unique legacy in the history of comics is critical to understanding the development of comic characters to follow. The Shadow first appeared on the radio on August 2, 1930 on a program called Detective Story Hour and then appeared in pulp story magazine novel form in April 1931, with the very first story issue entitled The Living Shadow (4). This was written by Walter B. Gibson, who would use the pen name Maxwell Grant ([4]). In print, film, and radio, the Shadow’s consistent superpower is a master of disguise and stealth ([5]). In 1937 in the Shadow Radio Show (during its fourth season), the Shadow was given the power to “cloud men’s minds so they cannot see him” ([6]). The exact date the Shadow was given this superpower was September 26, 1937 (5).  In contrast, in pulp magazine’s novels the Shadow gets out of dangers by using his stealth, his .45 Caliber Pistols, and the occasional magic trick (6). In the radio version, his power to “cloud men’s minds so they cannot see him”, allows him to hypnotize people instantly so that he can move as an invisible shadow. The Shadow (in the radio version) can hypnotize people so they can forget things, and he can command them to perform certain acts. The Shadow used this power to force a criminal to write a detailed account of his past crimes. He accomplishes this task by using a fire opal ring known as a girasol (7). This enables him to focus his hypnotic abilities ([7]). The radio show Shadow’s introduction of his superpower in 1937 predated Superman, and in turn influenced the rise of Superman, who would first appear in comics on April 18, 1938([8]).

The Shadow radio show and pulp magazine novels also had graphic violence. The November, 1931 Shadow pulp magazine novel issue entitled “The Red Menace” contained a masked villain called The Red Envoy, who murdered everyone in his path to get secret plans for an aerial torpedo, before he is defeated by the Shadow (4). In one of the novels the villains used a device called the “Silent Death” which was an electric ray machine that could deal death on a massive scale (4). In the Shadow radio show entitled “Death from the Deep” (from 1937 to 1938 summer seasons) a villain named Vinton shoots around the inside of a Submarine thinking he has killed the Shadow but has no success because the Shadow is invisible (10).  The level of violence in the Shadow would influence future superhero comics to come.

Dick Tracy

Dick Tracy did not have any superpowers, but he was a master detective in the style of Sherlock Homes. Dick Tracy was created by Chester Gould and first appeared in the comic section of the Detroit newspaper Sunday Mirror on October 4, 1931 (11). 

The world of Dick Tracy was filled with graphic violence.  In the October 17, 1931 issue of Dick Tracy, Big Boy’s minions killed Dick Tracy’s girlfriend Tess Truehart’s father, Emil Truehart, in front of Dick Tracy and Tess Truehart during a robbery at the Truehart residence (12).  In 1934, villain Doc Hump experimented on humans and dogs by injecting them with rabies (13).  In the November 11, 1934 issue the villain Doc Hump planned to unleash a dog on a captured Dick Tracy only to have the dog turn on him (13). He tears his throat out, killing him instantly (13). On the May 21, 1935 issue Dick Tracy uses a hose to pump car exhaust fumes into a cave in order to flush out villains Cutie Diamond, Zora Arson, and her brother Boris Arson (14). Cutie Diamond and Zora Arson run out of the cave with their guns blazing - to which Dick Tracy and his partners killed them (14). Boris Arson hid in the cave behind a wall of stone and mud until Dick Tracy fired a machine gun into a hole in the cave where Boris Arson was, and the bullet caused a fatal wound in his bullet proof jacket, which killed him (14). In 1936, Chester Gould introduced the costumed criminals the Purple Cross Gang who committed many murders (15).  In 1937, the character of the Blank (real name Frank Redrum), whose face was shot off earlier, was cruel to criminals who rejected him simply because he was too ugly (15). The Blank would murder those that got in his way, tying criminals under a car so that they would die from carbon monoxide poisoning and throwing criminals out of a car going 50 miles per hour (15).  He also threw criminals out of an airplane while he laughed manically at their suffering and death as they crashed through a barn (15). 

Villains

The universe of Dick Tracy also had many grotesque villains. On February 25, 1932 the Dick Tracy comics introduced the disfigured villain of Broadway Bates with his pointed nose (16). The character would influence Batman’s the Penguin which first appeared in Batman comics in December 1941 (17). On May 7, 1934 Dick Tracy comics introduced the frightening character named Doc Hump (13). Doc Hump had a bald, humped shaped head and was an evil mad scientist who would influence the design of famous Superman villain Lex Luthor (15). Lex Luthor would first appear in the Superman comics in April, 1940 (18). On October 21, 1937 Dick Tracy comics introduced the first repulsive villain known as the Blank, because he had a semi-opaque cheesecloth to cover his face (19).  The Blank’s countenance would influence Batman super-villain Dr. Death, who would appear in the Batman comics in July 1939 (20). The Blank’s grotesque appearance would also influence the most famous Batman villain of all, the Joker, which first appeared in the Batman comics in April 1940(21). Dick Tracy’s villains influenced other comic writers to create their villains to look grotesque because it was artistically viable and commercially successful.

Legacy

On March 30th, 1939 Batman hit the newsstands, and it was heavily influenced by Dick Tracy and the Shadow (22). Batman co-creator Bill Finger said: “My first script was a take-off on a Shadow Story. I patterned my style of writing Batman after the Shadow” (23). On October 14, 1941 William Moulton Marston’s DC comic character Wonder Women appeared, which had plenty of graphic violence and grotesque villains (24).  Marvel Comic’s Spider Man hit the newsstands in August 1962 and was heavily influenced by Dick Tracy and the Shadow’s graphic violence and grotesque villains (25). In Spiderman, there is an ugly villain named the Chameleon (26).  The X-Men were also swayed by the legacy of Dick Tracy and the Shadow when it hit the newsstands in September 1963 (27). Magneto (appearing in X-Men) was very menacing in his appearance (28). 

The comics and pulp characters were old and hackneyed in the 1920s. The important innovations of the Shadow Radio Show and the Shadow Pulp Magazine Novels left a lasting legacy on comics.  The innovations of Dick Tracy also left a profound effect on comics as well. Dick Tracy and the Shadow would have a lasting legacy on D.C. Comics and Marvels Comics, and so many others to come. Dick Tracy and the Shadow were the comics to end all comics. 

What do you think of Dick Tracy and the Shadow? Let us know below.

Now you can read Daniel’s past article on whether World War Two Japanese Kamikaze attacks had more impact than Nazi V-2 rockets here.

[1] Zorro. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zorro. 

[2] Buck Rodgers. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buck_Rodgers 

[3] “Explore the History of Popeye”. https://popeye.com.  Accessed on October 23rd, 2020. http://popeye.com/timeline/

[4] Holt, Keith and Severin, Todd D. “The Shadow Mysterious Being of the Night”. The Shadow: Master of Darkness. October 23rd, 2020. https://www.shadowsanctum.net/history/articles/The_Shadow_Pulp_Years-Severin_Holt2.html . 

[5] The Shadow. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Shadow . 

[6] “Radio History of the Shadow”. The Shadow: Master of Darkness. October 23rd, 2020. https://www.shadowsanctum.net/radio/radio.html . 

[7] “The Shadow”. www.internationalhero.co.uk. October 23rd, 2020. https://www.internationalhero.co.uk/s/shadpulp.htm . 

[8] Superman. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superman

9 The Scarlet Pimpernel. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Scarlet_Pimpernel.

10 “Death from the Deep”. The Shadow: Master of Darkness. November 16th, 2020. https://www.shadowsanctum.net/radio/synopsis/ss-2.html

11 “Timeline-The Chester Gould Dick Tracy Museum”. The Dick Tracy Museum. November 9th,2020. https://www.dicktracymuseum.com/timeline-1 . 

12 Emil Truehart. https://dicktracy.fandom.com/wiki/Emil_Truehart . 

13 Doc Hump. https://dicktracy.fandom.com/wiki/Doc_Hump . 

14 Boris Arson. https://dickracy.fandom.com/wiki/Boris_Arson . 

15 Grand, Alex. “Chester Gould’s Dick Tracy and his 1930’s Era War on Crime”. Last Modified April 25th, 2020. Comic Book Historians. Accessed on November 15th, 2020. https://comicbookhistorians.com/dick-tracy-1930s-comic-milestones . 

16 Broadway Bates. https://dicktracy.fandom.com/wiki/Broadway_Bates . 

17 Penguin (Character). https://en.wikipedia.org/wikipedia/Penguin_(character)

18 Lex Luthor. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lex_Luthor . 

19 The Blank. https://dicktracy.fandom.com/wiki/The_Blank . 

20 Doctor Death. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctor_Death_(character) . 

21 Joker (character). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joker_(character) . 

22 Batman. https://en.wikipedia.org/wikipedia/Batman .

23 Severin, Todd D. “The Shadow Strange Creature in Black the Comic Book Years”. The Shadow Master of Darkness. November 19th, 2020. https://www.sahdowsanctum.net/history/articles/The_Shadow_Comic_Years-Severin.html . 

24 Wonder Women. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wonder-Women . 

25 Spider-Man. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spider-Man.

26 Chameleon (Marvel Comics). https://en.wikpedia.org/wiki/Chamelon (Marvel Comics). 

27 X-Men. https://en.wikipeida.org/wiki/X-Men . 

28 Magneto (Marvel Comics). https://en.wikipedia/org/wiki/Magneto_(Marvel Comics). 

A Brief History of New England

New England refers to the group of six states that together comprise the northeast region of the United States - Massachusetts, Maine, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New Hampshire, and Vermont. Here, Douglas Reid tells us about the region and these six states.

Autumn in New England by Maurice Prendergast, early 20th century.

Nunquam libertas gratior extat.

 - Never has liberty appeared in a more gracious form.

New England was first settled by pilgrims from old England in 1620. This was 13 years after an earlier landing in Jamestown, Virginia. However, the Puritan Separatist Pilgrims were more prolific and this colony grew faster. Originally their colony was part of the Massachusetts Bay colony. Today they are quite separate. Massachusetts dominates.

Massachusetts

This state has been truly blessed. It was destined to be special. For starters it was the cradle of the American Revolution and it led the dissatisfied states to victory both on the battlefield and off. John Adams, John Hancock, Paul Revere, Sam Adams, and John Quincy Adams (later), fire-breathing revolutionaries all, leaders at both continental congresses and on the fields of fire. It seems right, somehow that in modern Massachusetts is found the annual Boston Marathon. And in professional leagues Boston teams (Red Sox, Bruins, Patriots, Celtics) have achieved remarkable records. Other sorts of groupings come to mind.

Politically, the vast Kennedy clan has been dominant like no other. The Bush family too has been a force on both the national and international stage. Michael Dukakis yet another. Apparently, this state also leads in brainpower.

According to the 2020 World Population Review, Massachusetts’ residents demonstrated the highest average IQ of all U.S. States. We ought not to be surprised when we remember that Boston is home to both Harvard University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Even as far back as 200 years ago Massachusetts was the center of the country’s intelligentsia.

Concord, a small town of perhaps 7,000, (not to be confused with Concord, New Hampshire), was the center of learning. This was the hour of Transcendentalism – Ralph Waldo Emerson, the essayist, Henry David Thoreau, naturalist, Louisa May Alcott, Little Women, Nathaniel Hawthorne, and all the rest. Concord was the original home of the Concord grape. Today it is still home to the rich and famous – Caroline Kennedy, Doris Goodwin Kearns, Joe Namath. But hey, Massachusetts cannot afford to get too smug. We only need to be reminded that this is the state that staged and harbored the infamous witchcraft trials of 1692.

Connecticut

Connecticut is the southernmost state in New England. It rates 47th in size in the U.S. but it rates first in per-capita income. Despite its small territory the landscape varies between mountainous (it encompasses the northern portion of the Appalachian range), flat savannah grass, rugged shoreline, and tree-covered lower slopes. Its capital is Hartford, which is often referred to as the insurance capital of the world. The most populace city is Bridgeport. The state is named for the Connecticut River, which approximately bisects it. The word  “Connecticut” is derived from various spellings of Mohegan word for “long tidal river.”

Connecticut’s first settlers were not English but Dutch. The Dutch established a small, short-lived colony called Fort Hoop at the confluence of the Connecticut and Park Rivers. Enter one Thomas Hooker who led a band of followers from the Massachusetts Bay Colony and founded the Connecticut Colony; a Massachusetts company founded the Saybrook Colony and the New Haven Colony. The Connecticut and New Haven Colonies established the documents of Fundamental Orders, considered the first constitutions in America. In 1662, the three colonies were merged under a royal charter making Connecticut a crown colony. This was one of the thirteen colonies, which rejected British rule in the American Revolution.

Should you ever find yourself touring New England, particularly Connecticut, be sure to visit Old Saybrook and its venerable lighthouse. A rather accomplished and athletic lady spent her first 20 years within hailing distance of that lighthouse. She travelled to California and did a bit of acting for a spell. Then one day she returned to Saybrook where she tendered her garden for the closing years of her life. And still within hailing distance of that lighthouse. You may have heard of her - Katherine Hepburn

Rhode Island

Rhode Island is mostly not an island. It is largely on the mainland and it is known as the “Ocean State”. Actually Rhode Island is famous for its beaches – 400 miles of sandy beaches. It enjoys large bays and inlets. They amount to about 14 per cent of the total area. The state has land borders with Connecticut to the west, Massachusetts to the north and east, and the Atlantic Ocean. It also shares a small maritime border with New York. Providence is the state capital and the largest city.

The colony of Rhode Island was the first of the Thirteen Colonies to renounce its allegiance to the British Crown at the Continental Congress in 1776 and the fourth to ratify the Articles of Confederation in 1778. Rhode Island boycotted the convention, which drew up the United States Constitution in 1787 and, after initially refusing, was the last of the original 13 colonies to ratify the Constitution in 1790. 

Famous people from Rhode Island include Kevin Costner, Meredith Vieira, and Brad Faxon.

New Hampshire

Concord (not to be confused with Concord, Massachusetts) is the capital of New Hampshire while Manchester is the largest city. There is an interesting geographical feature involving New Hampshire and its neighbor to the east, Vermont. New Hampshire is broad at the top and slides down to narrow at the south or bottom end; where as Vermont is the converse. The dimensions are nearly the same as well. Thus, from above, they form two pieces of a giant jigsaw puzzle. The topography of this state is quite varied too.

The landscape of this state varies from west to east and is home to the often blustery White Mountains. As would be expected, this part of the New England states attracts skiers and participants in other winter sports. New Hampshire’s state emblem is granite and the state motto is ”Live Free Or Die”. This was the sixth of the original thirteen states to ratify the Declaration of Independence and the ninth state to confirm the Constitution.

Famous people from New Hampshire include Adam Sandler, Dan Brown, J.D. Salinger, and Tom Bergeron.

Vermont

Vermont, known as the Green Mountain State, was the fourteenth state to join the American Revolutionaries, and so it was the first to sign after the original thirteen. Vermont is the only New England state that does not border the Atlantic Ocean. Vermont has a colorful history thanks to Ethan Allen and the Green Mountain Boys. 

It was never clear who the Boys were for and who they were against. They seemed to join in as a sub-set of the American Revolutionaries, other times not so much. They were a group of rowdies with their own agenda. For instance, on their own volition, they raided and captured Fort Ticonderoga on the shores of Lake Champlain.

Famous people from Vermont include Chester Arthur, Suzy Chafee, Patty Sheehan, John LeClair, and Chester Arthur.

Maine

Maine is the eastern-most of the 48 contiguous states; it is also the northern-most. There are anomalies to its history as well. There is some strong evidence that around the year 1150, or so, Norwegian sailors had a long look at what we now know as Maine. This strong evidence includes Norwegian coins of ancient vintage discovered off the coast and even inland. Maine has other historic links. For many years the earliest settlements were known as the Massachusetts-Maine colony.

Conclusion

Some will notice that to date no mention has been made of New England’s most obvious crown jewel – the grand leafy colors of autumn. This annual display of nature gone riotous is beyond the powers of my poor pen to describe. How would I re-describe the Hope Diamond, the Taj Mahal, the sunset over Cape Town? I have but one suggestion that if put to the test might fairly describe the colorful show that New England presents each autumn.

Let loose Vincent Van Gogh with his palette re-topped with every swish of his magic brush.

What do you think of the author’s take on New England? Let us know below.

Now, you can read more from Douglas here, with an article on the man whose book may have led to the American Revolution.

The Myth and Reality of Santa Claus

The figure of Santa Claus has been increasingly commercialized in the 20th and 21st centuries. But who was the real Santa Claus? Daniel L. Smith gives his take here.

Daniel’s book on mid-19th century northern California is now available. Find our more here: Amazon US | Amazon UK

An early 20th century depiction of Santa Claus.

In present day America the day after Thanksgiving is traditionally spent hanging Christmas decorations and various lighting across the house and yard. These fun displays usually fit in the category of snowman, reindeer, or a big jolly old man with a white beard in a bright red suit with white fuzzy trim. We usually see images of this same person in stories or on the television magically hopping down chimneys and delivering gifts to sleeping families worldwide. This image has become something we’ve all been generationally born into, but where did this myth originate from? What is the truth behind this entire story?

The reality and the myth

“The real St. Nicholas lived from 270 to 342 and was known in his lifetime for fighting evil and promoting justice. He was credited with performing many miracles. His body was buried in the church in Myra, but in the 11th century pirates stole the bones and took them to Bari, Italy, where they supposedly are preserved in a Catholic church. About that time Nicholas also became a popular saint in Northern Europe. He was sometimes depicted with a staff, looking more like a Greek bishop.

The legend that has become the basis of the Santa Claus story is as follows.

A poor man had three daughters. Unable to give them dowries, he thought he would have to sell them into prostitution (something the extremely poor were sometimes forced into). Nicholas wanted to help but also keep his charity work secret. He went to their home one night but climbed on the roof when he found all the doors and windows locked. He dropped three bags of gold down the chimney, and the three young women had hung their stockings by the fire to dry. The gifts fell into the socks, and the tradition was off and running.

St. Nicholas Day, Dec. 6, is still celebrated in many countries, and often includes gifts for children and gift exchanges among adults. So, the real person who fought for social justice, elimination of poverty and protection of children has had his image corrupted by a friendly guy in a red suit who brings you generally more than you would ever want.[1]

But in the early days of Christianity, conspicuous consumption was not common among Christians. 

A Material Cause

During the days of Paul the Apostle, greed was an easy reality to observe. The rich get rich and the poor get poorer. Arguably materialism in our times today is the only way to prove any kind of “flaunting success.” Continuing to buy and accumulate “things” has become the way Americans prove our worth to others.[2]

Historian Adam English writes that, “Nearly everyone knows that Santa Claus -- the obese, old gent who squeezes himself down the chimney every Christmas Eve -- is the American alter ego of St. Nicholas. Slimmer and less overtly jolly, St. Nicholas roams about Western Europe showering children with presents on his traditional feast day of Dec. 6. In the Netherlands and parts of Germany, children expect a visit from a white-bearded, ecclesiastically garbed "Sinterklaas" (his Dutch name), who decides whether they have been naughty or nice before handing out treats from his sack.

Dutch and German immigrants brought St. Nicholas to America in the early 19th century, and he began a process of assimilation, trading in his bishop's miter and crosier for a fur-trimmed red suit and cap. The Santa we now know was the creation of poet Clement Clarke Moore (1779-1863), the author of "The Night Before Christmas"; cartoonist Thomas Nast; illustrators like N.C. Wyeth and Norman Rockwell; and the magazine ads for Coca-Cola painted by Haddon Simmons starting in 1931, in which Santa took a break from the arduousness of setting up junior's electric train by pausing to have a coke.”[3]

Christians and Santa Claus

So, here we are in 2020 and most of American society relishes in the contemporary version of St. Nick. One has got to wonder how Christians should feel about the secularized and materialistic view on Christmas Santa Claus?

Ken Ham, Director of the Creation Museum and bearer of 6 honorary university graduate degrees mentions, “The mythical Santa is clearly founded in a man who honored Jesus Christ with his life and his possessions. Nicholas gave freely of his riches to benefit those who were less fortunate than himself. This is clearly a fundamental Christian principle, as we see care for the poor proclaimed throughout Scripture (e.g. James 2:1–17).

Is that the same idea we see in the Santa Claus celebrated today? The popular song extols children to stop shouting, pouting, and crying in order to earn Santa’s favor and his gifts. This is clearly not the attitude that we see in the biblically motivated actions of the original St. Nick—and a far cry from a biblical attitude of raising children in the fear and admonition of the Lord.”[4]

Hope, Joy, Blessings

Of course discernment is the key here when it comes to a good old-fashioned secularized Christmas. Because even though Christ’s day has been cut down to a materialistic game of possessions, there are still hints scattered throughout the collage of the holidays. Bright stars, Gifts, Blessings of Joy and Hope. These are all principles of the day we know as Christmas. It is a day of blessing others. It is a day of healing and redemption. It is a day to reconnect and start fresh, knowing that there is divine light at the end of a dark road. Christmas is the day that mankind was gifted with the ultimate redemption on life by God Himself.

Other than the divinity of Jesus Christ, humanity has been blessed with the likes of the Apostles, the Christian Church, ministries of giving and selfless service, and much, much, more. Santa Claus, or St. Nick, was a man of Christ. He was known for much more than working with elves, magically transporting down chimneys, and riding a sleigh pulled by flying reindeer across the skyline. He was a man who knew how to live a life for Christ and serve the needs of humankind who ultimately needed it the most.
 

You can read a selection of Daniel’s past articles on: California in the US Civil War (here), Spanish Colonial Influence on Native Americans in Northern California (here), the collapse of the Spanish Armada in 1588 (here), early Christianity in Britain (here), the First Anglo-Dutch War (here), the 1918 Spanish Influenza outbreak (here), and an early European expedition to America (here).

Finally, Daniel Smith writes at complexamerica.org.

References

[1] Allen, Martha Sawyer. "What would St. Nick do? : St. Nicholas - the real guy - was known for his battles against evil and for justice and the downtrodden. Somehow over the centuries his image has been corrupted into that of Santa Claus, who has been called the patron saint of greed." Star Tribune [Minneapolis, MN] 4 Dec. 1999: 05B. Business Insights: Global. Web. 7 Dec. 2020.

[2] Ibid.

[3] Allen, Charlotte. "The Real Father Christmas." Wall Street Journal, Dec 06, 2012, Eastern edition.

[4] Ham, Ken. "Christians and Santa Claus: A Biblical View." Answers in Genesis. Last modified December 15, 2009. https://answersingenesis.org/jesus/birth/wintertime-worship-santa-claus-or-jesus-christ/.