The Fourth Indian Mughal Emperor: Jahangir

The Mughals have left an undeniable imprint upon the Indian landscape; their legacy is seen in the form of culture, architecture and art. Their rule lasted for more than 300 years, from 1526 to 1857. There have been a whole brood of Mughal emperors, but none stood out as much as the first six, the creators of the Mughal legacy. Many of their descendants would take advantage of the riches and power that they had inherited. However, infighting among them paved the way for other princes and ultimately the British to take control.

In part 4, we look at the fourth Mughal Emperor, Jahangir (1569-1627), who reigned from 1605 until 1627. Here, Khadija Tauseef looks at the many problems Jahangir had with his father Akbar before he took power, the key events of his reign, and the importance of Nur Jahan while he was in power.

If you missed them, you can read part one in the series on the first Mughal Emperor Babur here, part 2 on Emperor Humayun here, the start of part 3 on Emperor Akbar here, and Emperor Akbar in power here.

Mughal Emperor Jahangir hunting with a falcon.

The fourth Mughal emperor, who ruled the empire for twenty-two years, was Jahangir. He was a prince that was born with a golden spoon in his mouth; the first surviving child of Emperor Akbar had already made him his father’s favorite. Unfortunately, he had a bitter relationship with his father, who he revolted against several times. However, the father and son were able to reconcile their differences during Akbar’s later reign. Jahangir’s life was haunted by vices that would make him unfit to rule though: opium and drink. He was also a patron of the arts, especially of painting.

Golden Beginnings

Emperor Jahangir was born on August 31, 1569, to Akbar and his Rajput wife, Marium-uz-Zamani. His birth was an auspicious event in Akbar’s life; he had several children who had died in different stages of infancy. Jahangir was the first son to survive. Akbar named him Salim, after the Chishti Shaykh. Akbar was so excited about the birth of Salim that he built the city of Fatehpur Sikri. 

Growing up, Salim and his brothers were provided with a comfortable upbringing, which led them to develop habits that would hinder them in the future. Salim had developed a liking for drink, opium, and women. He had a demonic temper coupled with a streak of cruelty, which caused a rift between father and son. 

As Bamber Gascoigne writes:

“Akbar seems to have been intensely irritated by his eldest son, often it must be admitted with good reason—as when Salim executed three offenders with particularly whimsical and sadistic devices, or when he continually declined the command of expeditions to distant parts of the empire, seeming determined to remain near enough the centre to be strongly placed when his father died.”

Akbar soon started to prefer his other sons to Salim. However, Abul Fazl claims that not all the blame lies with the son, as Akbar has a hand in it as well. Abul Fazl recalls:

“…on the journey to Kashmir in 1589, Salim had been told to bring the harem forward to join Akbar, but he decided that the road was too dangerous and so came on alone. Akbar’s response was on the verge of hysterical. He refused to see the prince and laid hectic plans to ride all through the night, almost unaccompanied, over the admittedly perilous path to fetch the ladies himself.”

Revolts

In 1599, Akbar was struck by tragedy, when his son Murad passed away, caused by his addiction to alcohol. Salim began to revolt against Akbar, making trouble by declaring himself emperor.

Gascoigne writes:

“Compared to the rebellions by Moghul princes later in the seventeenth century this was a very low-key affair and can be more accurately described as Salim mooning about the country with a large army and vaguely referring to himself as emperor while disobeying Akbar’s orders to put his troops to any more effective use. Both father and son were careful to avoid any irretrievable step, and even when Salim marched in 1602 from Allahabad towards Agra with the force of thirty thousand men Akbar was able to talk him back into obedience without an open clash.” 

In 1603, Hamida, Akbar’s mother, was able to bring about a reconciliation between the two. She was instrumental in helping them repair the rift. It could not have come at a better time because in March 1605, Akbar’s son Daniyal died as a result of alcoholism. Before his own death, Akbar placed his turban on Salim, confirming his position as successor to the Mughal throne.

Emperor

Prince Salim had inherited a rich and stable empire from his father, and upon ascending the throne he adopted the name Nur-ud-din Jahangir, which means ‘seizer of the world’. Unlike his father, Jahangir wasn’t interested in political and administrative affairs. Although a patron of the arts, he chose to indulge his time and energies in wine, women, songs, and drugs. 

Soon after his ascension, Jahangir faced his first challenge, in the form of his eldest son - Khusrau’s rebellion. The rebellion was put down and Khusrau fled to Delhi, with his father’s forces still in pursuit. After the capture and punishment of his son and allies, Jahangir turned his affections towards another son, Khurram (the future emperor Shah Jahan). During his reign there were regular uprisings that required his attention. Jahangir’s life took a turn in 1611 when he married the widow, Mehr-un-Nisa, upon whom he conferred the title of Nur Jahan. Even though he had 20 wives, Nur Jahan would remain his favorite until the end of his life.

Annemarie Schimmel writes: 

“The fact that Jahangir was able to live a life of luxury and devote himself almost exclusively to art and science, concerning himself very little with matters of government, was thanks to his wife Nur Jahan.”

Nur Jahan was an intelligent woman, who began handling the affairs of the country from the shadows. This brought her into direct conflict with Prince Khurram, who believed that Nur Jahan was using her influence to garner favor for her family members. In the beginning Nur Jahan had supported Shah Jahan’s claim to the throne; however, she shifted her support to Shahriyar. 

As Jahangir became even more dependent upon drugs and drinking, he receded from public life and the functioning of the court was in large part due to Nur Jahan. Jahangir’s health began to deteriorate as time went on. He suffered greatly when Khurram rebelled, becoming disobedient after his victory against Malik Amber. Like Babur, Jahangir used to chronicle all the events of his life and it is in his diary that for the first time he refers to his beloved son, as bi-Daulat (the wretch). Khurram went on the run when his rebellion failed.

Death

As Jahangir’s health deteriorated, he began visiting places like Kashmir and Kabul that were supposed to help restore health. While Jahangir was camped by the River Jhelum, with his wife Nur Jahan by his side, his second son, Parviz surrounded the camp. Nur Jahan fled the camp and organized reinforcements, leading to a successful retrieval of her husband. 

After visiting Kashmir, Jahangir decided to return to Lahore, but unfortunately, he would never complete the journey. Emperor Jahangir passed away on the October 28, 1627, at the age of 57. There had been no really significant political or military developments during his reign. He had not expanded the empire beyond the boundaries established by Akbar.

What do you think of Emperor Jahangir? Let us know below.

Now, you can read Khadija’s article on “The Fascinating History of Lahore Fort in Pakistan” here.

The Third Indian Mughal Emperor: Emperor Akbar in Power

The Mughals have left an undeniable imprint upon the Indian landscape; their legacy is seen in the form of culture, architecture and art. Their rule lasted for more than 300 years, from 1526 to 1857. There have been a whole brood of Mughal emperors, but none stood out as much as the first six, the creators of the Mughal legacy. Many of their descendants would take advantage of the riches and power that they had inherited. However, infighting among them paved the way for other princes and ultimately the British to take control.

In part 3-and-a-half, we continue our look at the third Mughal Emperor, Akbar. He reigned from 1556 when he was 13, and was possibly the greatest of the Indian Mughal Emperors. Here, Khadija Tauseef considers his years in power including his military conquests, religious tolerance, his family, his court, and Din-e-Ilahi.

If you missed them, you can read part one in the series on the first Mughal Emperor Babur here, part 2 on Emperor Humayun here, and the start of part 3 on Emperor Akbar here.

Akbar holding a religious assembly of different faiths in the Ibadat Khana in Fatehpur Sikri.

Upon reaching the age of nineteen, Emperor Akbar finally gained sole power over his empire. His reign was filled with constant warfare because he was establishing and consolidating the Mughal Empire. A way to do that was to establish good relations with other powerful communities. Thus in 1562, Akbar married a Rajput princess, which resulted in creating a union with the Rajput community. The Rajputs were a warrior group and they provided Akbar with a strong army. Therefore, marrying into the Rajput tribe made military and political sense. Akbar even began laying the foundations for religious tolerance in his empire, which would make him popular among his non-Muslim subjects.

Religious tolerance

In 1563, Akbar was out hunting near Mathura, a place of pilgrimage of the Hindus. It was on his trip that he discovered that for Hindus to gain access to their holy place they had to pay a tax to his officers, a practice that had been set up by previous Muslim emperors. Akbar felt that it was unfair for his people to pay just to go to a place of worship, so he passed a law which forbid the practice of such taxation. A year later, in 1564, Akbar abolished Jizya (a tax that was supposed to be paid by non-believers). This action made the Hindu community and others happy because the removal of the Jizya tax meant that now everyone was more equal in the Mughal Empire. 

Many Muslim rulers before Akbar had Hindu wives; however, Akbar was the one who allowed them to practice their religion freely in the Harem. As his reign progressed, Akbar made many concessions to Hindu customs, even taking part in their ceremonies. Akbar began changing his routines, as Bamber Gascoigne writes:

“…introducing their festivals at court and having newly washed and painted cows brought into his presence after Diwali, letting his hair grow long in a Hindu fashion and adopting a Rajput style of turban, even on occasions wearing the tilak, the Hindu sectarial or ornamental mark made on the forehead.”

Such changes began to alarm the orthodox Muslim communities, who thought that Akbar was moving away from his faith; however, there was a political reason behind such changes. Akbar understood that he needed the consent of both religious groups to maintain stable rule. Also, in his youth he had been greatly influenced by his teacher Mir Abdul Latif, who would emphasize the principle of sulh-i-kull or religious tolerance. Akbar would keep these teachings in his mind.

Militarized Reign

In the beginning of Akbar’s reign, his battles had been assisted by regents. Once he gained complete independence, in 1564, he conquered the kingdom of Gondwana. Then in 1567, Akbar turned his attention to Chitor and in October he arrived outside the fort. However, this victory was not to be an easy one, the fort was strongly built and after months of siege, it was only in February 1568 that Akbar and his army finally breeched the gate of the Chitor Fort. Even though victorious, Akbar sullied this victory when he massacred all the innocents residing within the fort. 

There was another hindrance to Akbar’s expansion. Bihar and Bengal were causing problems for the young, ambitious king. But, in 1572, Suleiman Karrani (ruler of Bihar and Bengal) made a weak peace with Akbar. When the two cities were no more a threat, Akbar shifted his focus, and a year later conquered Gujarat. In 1575, Suleiman died, and Akbar used this opportunity to bring Bihar and Bengal under his control.

Threats to Akbar’s reign did not only come from the Hindu kings, but he also faced a threat from his half-brother Hakim. In Kabul, there was a struggle between Hakim and his cousins Suleiman and Shahrukh. Akbar remained alert, keeping his armies ready in case there was a need to fight his relatives. In 1580, Akbar’s fears were realized when Hakim marched on the Punjab and besieged Lahore. Ultimately though, Akbar was victorious in putting an end to the uprisings, which had represented the greatest threat to his empire. 

Warfare was not the only method that Akbar used to win over territory. He steadily extended his control over Rajasthan, by marrying into its ruling houses, thus securing alliances with the Hindu Rajputs.

Family

Akbar married 35 times, the first time in 1552 to Princess Ruqaiah Sultan, at the tender age of 9. Out of the 35, 12 women were Rajput princesses. Akbar may have been married to several princesses by the age of 20; however, there was still no heir to the throne. The lack of heirs caused Akbar to worry about the security of the empire that he was creating, and he was disheartened by the absence of a son. He found hope when he heard of the Sufi saint named Sheikh Salim Chishti who lived near the village of Sikri, some twenty miles from Agra. Akbar walked barefoot to Sikri, dressed in simple clothing. He requested the saint to pray on his behalf and to ask God to grant him a son. The saint replied favorably to the king’s request, saying that he would have three sons. 

In 1569, Akbar’s prayers were answered when a Rajput princess gave birth to Prince Salim (the future Emperor Jahangir). A year later, Prince Murad was born, followed by Prince Daniyal two years later. Akbar’s empire was secure; it finally had the heir (and the spare heir) it longed for.

Court life of Akbar

Akbar’s court was graced by many intellectuals and creatives; he is the first and only Mughal that had the Navratna (nine gems). The nine gems consisted of very talented individuals: Abul Fazl, Faizi, Todar Mal, Abdul Rahim Khan, Tansen, Raja Man Singh, Faqir Aziao Din, Mullah Do Piaza, and Birbal. Abdul Fazl chronicled the life of Emperor Akbar, Tanzen was a great musician, but the most famous of the nine gems was Birbal. He had a very close relationship with Akbar, their friendship has become famous through media and books.  

Akbar was influenced by others throughout his life; therefore, although he continued to grant land and titles to his courtiers, he always kept a close eye upon them to ensure that no one would try to usurp power from him.

Din-e-Ilahi

Akbar’s religious tolerance meant that he wanted religious scholars from different communities to come together for dialogue that would help narrow the gap between them. Therefore, he created the Ibadat-khana, a place where religious debate could be held. Unfortunately, he soon became disillusioned by the attitudes of the scholars who would lose their temper upon minor issues and even abused one another, seeing that no matter how much these scholars argued they could not settle their differences. Akbar had hoped to establish a peace between the different communities but when he saw that would be very difficult, he did something unexpected; he created his own religion. 

Din-i-Ilahi means ‘Religion of God’ or ‘Divine Religion.’ Annemarie Schimmel writes:

“There are widely varying interpretations about din-i-Ilahi. Akbar’s opponents considered it to be merely an ersatz religion, and it does appear to have been a kind of esoteric club for select members.”

In contrast Zeenut Ziad argues that it was an order or brotherhood, rather than a new religion. He writes: “For Muslims like Badauni the Din-I Ilahi seemed to mean that the emperor had willingly and wittingly left Islam and now posed as the founder of a new religion; that is, he had assumed, so to speak, a prophetic role.” 

Din-i-Ilahi was not followed by many people, and so it gradually ended after Akbar’s death in 1605. 

Conclusion

Akbar may not have been the first Mughal to enter India, but he was the one who created a strong empire that was secure for several generations after. He tried to ensure that all his subjects were treated more equally, regardless of their religion. And he expanded the borders of the empire, which ensured that his heirs were left with enough wealth so that they could sustain themselves. 

What do you think of Emperor Akbar? Let us know below.

Now, you can read Khadija’s article on “The Fascinating History of Lahore Fort in Pakistan” here.

The Third Indian Mughal Emperor: The Early Years of Akbar

The Mughals have left an undeniable imprint upon the Indian landscape; their legacy is seen in the form of culture, architecture and art. Their rule lasted for more than 300 years, from 1526 to 1857. There have been a whole brood of Mughal emperors, but none stood out as much as the first six, the creators of the Mughal legacy. Many of their descendants would take advantage of the riches and power that they had inherited. However, infighting among them paved the way for other princes and ultimately the British to take control.

In part 3, we look at the third Mughal Emperor, Akbar. He reigned from 1556 when he was 13, and was possibly the greatest of the Indian Mughal Emperors. Here, Khadija Tauseef considers his early years and the struggles he had in establishing himself on the throne.

If you missed them, you can read part one in the series on the first Mughal Emperor Babur here and the second article on Emperor Humayun here.

Mughal Emperor Akbar with an elephant.

Early life

Akbar was born in Umarkot on October 15, 1542, to Emperor Humayun and his young wife, Hamida. Humayun had been on the run, therefore it seems likely that Akbar had a very unsettled early life. In 1553, at the age of ten, Akbar accompanied his father into battle, where he had been given the leadership of his dead uncle Hindal’s followers. In 1555, Akbar was with the advanced guard. However, perhaps Akbar’s early exposure to this violent side of royal life may have had a great impact upon his personality, making him stronger to face the numerous challenges that he would face in life. 

Akbar’s world was shaken when in February 1556, Humayun slipped on the stairs and died. Two months prior to his death, Humayun had appointed Bairam Khan as the guardian of his twelve-year-old son, Akbar. Not yet thirteen, Akbar was thrust into the limelight and quickly proclaimed as the next Emperor of the Mughal throne. As a child emperor, Akbar faced many threats not just from three Afghan rulers but also from a Hindu named Hemu. Akbar found protection in the form of Bairam Khan, who guided him during this difficult time - especially when in October 1556, Hemu marched upon Delhi defeating the Mughal forces that had been stationed there. Despite Hemu’s superior forces, Akbar and Bairam Khan didn’t run; instead they decided to face off against their enemy.

Power

Both armies met on the field of Panipat, where years earlier Babur had won a victory against the Indian princes. 1556 would prove auspicious for the Mughal forces because they won when an arrow pierced Hemu’s eye causing him to faint bringing the battle to an end. Within eighteen months of his accession, the three most serious threats to his throne – Hemu, Sikander Shah and Adil Shah - had all been removed. A result of these constant fights was that he became someone who neglected his studies. Therefore, in a royal family which prized learning more than most, Akbar remained illiterate. 

Bamber Gascoigne believes that the truth may have been different. He claims that “Akbar as a boy had learnt the rudiments of reading and writing, but preferred not to use them—perhaps originally from choice, and later because to read and write badly was worse than not doing so at all”. 

As Akbar grew older, Bairam Khan had continued to run the affairs of state very efficiently. He kept firm control of the center and continually sent out expeditions to enlarge the frontiers of the kingdom. However, Bairam’s rule came to a halt in 1560 when Maham Anga (Akbar’s wet-nurse) and her son, Adham Khan, tricked Akbar into travelling to Delhi without his guardian, Bairam Khan. They took this opportunity to turn Akbar against his guardian. Akbar, who was now seventeen, felt he was ready to take more personal control of the empire’s affairs. Therefore, Akbar suggested Bairam Khan take a pilgrimage to Mecca — this was the Mughal way of ostracism. 

Bairam could have gathered his forces and marched against the young ruler, but loyalty prevented him from taking any sort of action. Unfortunately, on the way, Bairam was murdered by an Afghan, who wanted to take revenge for the death of his father. Akbar believed that he had the power now, but the power held by Bairam had been passed to Maham Anga, who tried to manipulate the young monarch. She soon discovered that she couldn’t have the same amount of absolute control because Akbar now wanted to come into his own.

Betrayal

With Bairam Khan gone, Akbar needed another general to lead his army. He gave command to Adham Khan, who was sent to invade and capture Malwa, ruled by Baz Bahadur. The ruler of Malwa had a reputation as a musician and had a harem filled with beautiful women. Unfortunately, he proved to be less impressive as a general when he lost to the Mughal Army. Adham won a grand victory against the enemy; however, it was during this expedition that his behavior changed. It was tradition that the victorious general had to send the captives and treasures to the Emperor, but Adham only sent a few elephants while keeping the rest of the goods for himself. 

Other offences were committed by Adham Khan and his fellow commander when they gathered the older women of Baz Bahadur’s harem and butchered them. When other Muslim companions protested their actions they too were massacred. When news of Adham’s actions reached Agra, Akbar was outraged. Taking matters into his own hands, he marched to Malwa with a small entourage. Akbar spent a few days clearing all the matters that had taken place, but the ultimate result was that Adham Khan was forgiven. This would prove to be troublesome later. 

Upon returning to Agra, Akbar wanted to ensure that the power that was being held by Maham Anga and her party would be reduced. Thus, in 1561 Akbar appointed Atkah Khan, who had been summoned from Kabul, as chief minister. This change did not sit well with the opposition, who saw their power slipping through their fingers. Therefore, after a few months, Adham Khan burst into the offices of the chief minister, which were next to the harem. Adham and his men assassinated Atkah Khan and then set their sights on the harem. Fortunately, the eunuch guarding the harem locked the door. 

As this was happening, Akbar made his way into the office of the minister, where he was met by the gruesome scene. Gascoigne writes: “… Akbar emerged from another door to confront the assassin. Adham laid his hand on Akbar’s arm in an ambiguous gesture, which might have been either supplication or assault, whereupon Akbar punched him in the face. It was boasted later that the mark looked as though it had been a blow from a mace; at any rate it knocked him unconscious.”

Akbar then ordered the unconscious Adham to be thrown off the parapet. He barely survived from the fall, so Akbar ordered that he be taken back up the stairs and dropped again. This time the fall proved to be fatal. Akbar took it upon himself to inform Maham Anga that her son was dead. Even though Akbar had pardoned Maham Anga, she died several weeks later from grief. Akbar was finally free of all influences, free of all the people who wanted to use him as a stepping-stone to power. Now nineteen years old, Akbar was coming into his own. In his rule he will prove why he was the greatest of the Mughal rulers. 

What do you think of Akbar’s early life? Let us know below.

Now, you can read Khadija’s article on “The Fascinating History of Lahore Fort in Pakistan” here.

The Second Indian Mughal Emperor: Humayun, The Underdog Prince

The Mughals have left an undeniable imprint upon the Indian landscape; their legacy is seen in the form of culture, architecture and art. Their rule lasted for more than 300 years, from 1526 to 1857. There have been a whole brood of Mughal emperors, but none stood out as much as the first six, the creators of the Mughal legacy. Many of their descendants would take advantage of the riches and power that they had inherited. However, infighting among them paved the way for other princes and ultimately the British to take control.

In part 2, we look at the second Mughal Emperor, Humayun. He reigned from 1530-1540 and again from 1555-1556. He led a constant battle to maintain his father’s empire, in part due to a request from his father. Khadija Tauseef explains.

If you missed it you can read part one in the series on the first Mughal Emperor Babur here.

The second Mughal emperor, Humayun. This a detail of a miniature from the Baburnama, 1590s.

Humayun was the most beloved son of the Emperor Babur and his favorite wife Maham Begum, born to them on March 6, 1508. The prince was his father’s favorite. When Humayun fell gravely ill, and many believed that only God could save him, an Amir suggested offering something of value in exchange for the prince’s health. It was at this moment that Babur offered his own life in exchange for his son’s. And so, the story goes that Babur’s condition began to worsen while Humayun started to get better. Ultimately in 1530, Babur passed away and left the throne to Humayun. However, there was one piece of advice that Babur gave to Humayun before his death that would cause many problems in Humayun’s reign.

Humayun Rule

Babur wanted to conquer new territory; thus, he paved the way for the creation of the Mughal Empire. During his conquests Babur would conquer territory and, in order to sustain control, he would leave his heir in charge. From the beginning Babur had decided that Humayun would be the one who would succeed to the throne after Babur’s death. Unfortunately, Humayun did not have his father’s spirit and he failed to keep the empire intact for long. A key reason for this was that Babur had asked Humayun to do nothing that would harm his brothers. 

Thus, in order to ensure that his brothers would be happy, he decided to assign territories to them as Zeenut Zaid explains:

“Under the tradition of appanage rule, Humayun conceded control of Badakhshan to Sulaiman, of Kabul to Kamran, and gave large districts in India to two of his other brothers to administer”

Shortly after Humayun had bestowed them the territories, Kamran rose and asserted full independent control over Kabul and Punjab. Humayun, bound by his father’s command, could do nothing to stop his brothers. So, weakened by sibling rivalries, the difficult task of defending and consolidating his father’s conquests in the north of India fell to him. The biggest threat came in the shape of powerful Afghan warriors.

Mughal Rule hanging by a thread

Humayun attempted to conquer the Sultanate of Gujarat in a five-year campaign, it was here that he first came up against Sher Khan Sur; an Afghan commander who had been rapidly consolidating his power and eventually became the leader of the Afghans. Humayun fought two battles against Sher Khan but lost both. Humayun fled from his adversaries to Sindh, where for seven months he laid siege to Sehwan, without success. It was at this time that Humayun’s allies began abandoning him. 

It was in Sindh that he met Hamida, a fourteen-year old girl of Persian descent. It was from this union that his son Akbar was born. Unable to make progress in India, Humayun fled to Iran with his new wife by his side. It was in Iran that Humayun met Shah Tahmasp, a man who would provide the Mughal king with support to recapture his kingdom. While Humayun had been wandering he had also been reacquainted with Bayram Khan, one of his Babur soldiers. With the help of his new allies, Humayun marched on India determined to take back his father’s empire. This time his brothers would not be spared; their territories would be reclaimed for the Mughal Empire. 

Kamran was the only sibling who continued to create problems for Humayun. Therefore, although he couldn’t bring himself to kill his brother, he did have him blinded. Humayun had regained the Mughal Empire that his father had conquered, but unfortunately before he could consolidate his rule, he died. A year after seizing back control, Humayun had been in his study and it was here that he slipped and fell from the stairs, resulting in his untimely death. Humayun left behind his 12 year old son, Akbar, who inherited the turbulent and uncertain empire of the Mughals.

Humayun the Astrologer

Unlike most rulers, Humayun arranged his entire life according to the astrological signs, something which was most unusual for the time. Even though many other Mughals also believed in the power of the stars, Humayun took his obsession to the next level. As Michael H. Fisher explains:

“He identified each weekday with an astral body, himself wearing self-designed robes of the conforming color while conducting the corresponding imperial functions. For instance, on Tuesday, identified with the astrological planet Mars, Humayun wore red garments, sat ‘on the throne of wrath and vengeance,’ and directed the sentencing of each criminal and war-captive to imaginative punishments, guided by Humayun’s own inspired insight into the otherwise hidden essence of the prisoner and his alleged deeds. Humayun ordered his tents to be symbolically made in twelve sections, each representing a zodiac sign.” 

Humayun’s reliance upon the zodiac signs can even be seen in the way that he arranged his government. Fisher explains:

“In another scheme, he divided the branches of his administration according to the prime natural elements: fire (the military), air (his household), water (irrigation) and earth (buildings and lands). Each branch’s officials were to wear robes of the corresponding color.”

The courtiers would be sorted into these administrative divisions according to their zodiac sign and its corresponding element. However, this system may have been the reason why Humayun suffered greatly in his life. Relying upon the zodiac, many people who may not have been fit for a certain role may have been assigned tasks that didn’t suit them. Humayun’s brothers were aware of this weakness and that’s partly why they choose to take advantage of this and rebel against their brother. At the same time Humayun was faced with the Afghan threat led by Sher Khan, who would later take the title of Sher Shah Suri.

What do you think of Humayun’s life? Let us know below.

Now, you can read Khadija’s article on “The Fascinating History of Lahore Fort in Pakistan” here.

The First Indian Mughal Emperor: Babur, Descendant of the Mongols

The Mughals have left an undeniable imprint upon the Indian landscape; their legacy is seen in the form of culture, architecture and art. Their rule lasted for more than 300 years, from 1526 to 1857. There have been a whole brood of Mughal emperors, but none stood out as much as the first six, the creators of the Mughal legacy. Many of their descendants would take advantage of the riches and power that they had inherited. However, infighting among them paved the way for other princes and ultimately the British to take control.

The one who started it all was a warlord with some Mongol ancestry, Babur. Throughout his life, he faced constant threats from all around him. It was his past experience that helped him achieve victory in future battles and seize the land of Hindustan (India). In the first of a series on the early Mughal emperors, Khadija Tauseef explains.

You can also read Khadija’s first article for the site on Lahore Fort here.

A 17th century depiction of Babur.

Royal Beginnings

Babur was born in 1483, and his father, Umar Shaykh, was a direct descendant of Timur, and his mother was the daughter of Yunus Khan, a descendant of Chingiz Khan. So, from the start one could say that he had warrior’s blood flowing through his veins. At the tender age twelve, Babur’s father passed away. Thus, in June 1494, Babur inherited the province of Ferghana, a small but fertile province around modern-day Uzbekistan. Soon a threat emerged for control of Ferghana, not by outsiders but by his own Timurid-Mongol uncles who wished to seize power from their young nephew. For ten years Babur was consumed by constant warfare. His was a turbulent life, never knowing if he would live to see the next day. At the age of 19 he wrote:

“…I endured such hardship and misery. I had no realm—and no hope of any realm…I had had all I could take of homelessness and alienation. ‘With such difficulties,’ I said to myself, ‘it would be better to go off on my own so long as I am alive, and with such deprivation and wretchedness [wander] wherever my, feet will carry me, even to the ends of the earth.’” (Fisher, 2015)

In the end, Babur lost his throne and travelled to Kabul, where he seized control, and it became his stronghold. Then in 1505, Babur journeyed into India, for the first time; traversing through Kohat and Bannu. Accompanying Babur was a small force, who aided him in fighting against the Afghans; Babur later wrote that the Afghans surrendered to him ‘with grass between their teeth’. Babur seemed to have inherited certain traits from his Mongolian ancestors. “Babur upheld Timur’s tradition of constructing towers with the skulls of vanquished enemies on these occasions” (Schimmel, 2004).

After returning from India, Babur decided to visit his distant uncle, Husayn Bayqara, in Herat for the first time in 1506. For the next few years, Babur spent time preparing an army to march on India. Initially the campaigns into India were primarily pillaging raids; however, this changed in 1519, after the birth of his son Hindal, a name that means ‘Take India’. Babur saw this as a good omen and his excursions into India intensified. At the time of Babur’s conquest, India was a divided country; various princes were vying for control, so they were weak against an outside invader.

India

Babur’s advance into India increased gradually. Until in 1526, Babur faced off against the army of Ibrahim Lodhi, at the battlefield of Panipat. An army of 1,500 well-trained soldiers faced of against the massive forces of the Lodhi prince. Despite the odds against him, Babur remained undaunted, because he had something that his adversary lacked - firearms. Babur’s men were equipped with matchlocks and field artillery firearms, which easily broke though the cavalry charges of the Lodhi Army. After a fierce battle Babur’s forces emerged victorious, and the death of Ibrahim Lodhi and many of his important nobles allowed Babur to take over Delhi unchallenged. Seizing the royal palaces and treasury, the riches were used to fund further expeditions and keep his soldiers happy.

Once the battle was over, Babur travelled to Delhi in order to visit the mausoleums of two holy men; the Chishti master Nizamuddin Auliya (died in 1325) and his predecessor, Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki (died 1235). After paying his respects Babur turned his focus to improving his newly acquired territory. He ordered the construction of gardens that included cascading fountains and a hamam (a public Islamic bath) – even though Babur and his soldiers were not great admirers of the hot Indian weather and craved the cool land of Kabul. 

However, Babur’s control of India was filled with problems. Rana Sangha enthroned another Lodhi prince in order to seize back Delhi. They went up against Babur at Khanwa in 1527, where Babur won another decisive victory. He was able to defeat the most powerful Hindu prince of the region and thus adopted the title of Ghazi—fighter for the faith. He travelled to Agra where he established his base, leaving Delhi behind. It is also said that while Babur had been visiting Gwalior, the sight of the naked Jain Holy men, greatly disturbed him. 

Babur also ordered the construction of a route from Agra to Kabul that included markings along the route; this may have been done as a sign to show his possession of India.

Gone too soon

Once Babur had assumed control of India, he devoted most of his time to his family, but this peaceful time was short lived. Soon, his favorite son, Humayun, fell gravely ill and everyone feared that he would not be able to survive. It was then that Babur performed a ritual in which he prayed while circling his bed seven times. He prayed that his son be cured, and the illness possess him instead. His wish was granted as Humayun got better and Babur’s condition worsened - the father gave his life so that his son could live.  

On the December 26, 1530, Babur died aged forty-six. Although most of his life had been consumed with fighting, there was more to him than just being a warrior; he was also a scholar and a man of letters. Much of our knowledge regarding his reign comes from his own memoirs, the Baburnama.

“For Babur was also a man of letters, whose works on the metre of Persian poetry, on Hanafi law and other themes are important works of Chaghatay-Turkish. He even invented his own form of writing, the khatt-i baburi” (Schimmel, 2004).

Many are left wondering how much more he could have achieved had he lived, but more than an emperor or conqueror, he was a father. In the end he selflessly gave his life so that his son, Humayun, would carry forward his legacy and built an empire he never could.

What do you think of Babur? Let us know below.

Bibliography

Schimmel, Annemarie. The Empire of the Great Mughals. Reaktion Books: London, 2004.

Ziad, Zeenut. The Magnificent Mughals. Oxford University Press: USA, 2002.

Balabanlilar, Lisa. Imperial Identity in the Mughal Empire. Bloomsbury Publishing: London, 2012.

Fisher, Michael. A Short History of the Mughal Empire. Bloomsbury Academic: London, 2015.

The Fascinating History of Lahore Fort in Pakistan

Lahore Fort is located in the city of Lahore in north-eastern Pakistan. The fort has a rich and varied history, and the basis of the current fort came in 1566 under the Mughal Empire. It was later altered during the Sikh and British eras. Khadija Tauseef explains.

Lahore Fort in 1870.

Jahangir’s Quadrangle 

Jahangir’s Quadrangle is the largest quadrangle, which occupies the northeast corner of the fort. It was originally made by Emperor Akbar but a fire destroyed it, later it was repaired and completed by his son, Jahangir in 1617-18 AD. Along the northern wall lies the Bari Khawabgah (sleeping chamber) of the Emperor Jahangir; the warm climate caused the buildings to be made with large pillars, open from all sides. Curtains were all that provided privacy to the Khawabgah. The British saw no use for such an opulent structure, so they sealed up its sides and whitewashed the exterior. Turning it into an arms store, used to keep the soldier’s weapons. The quadrangle is surrounded on both sides, east and west, by a row of dalans (doorways). The dalans were converted into a single residential unit, for military units. The pillars that had been decorated with motifs and animals were removed and dalans made into very simple living quarters. Even the passages that led to the underground chambers were sealed away. 

In the middle of the courtyard were fountains that were said to shoot water up to the sky. The British completely altered the landscape - the gardens and fountains were filled in. By leveling the ground, they were able to turn the area into a badminton court for recreational activities. It is hard to imagine that the place where once dancers and musicians had performed for the Mughal emperors was now buried under the ground. This process damaged the fountains and it would take many years before they would be restored. 

The Diwan-e-Khas-o-Aam, stood opposite the Khawabgah. It was here that the British were able to erect a small hospital and dispensary. This was just one section. The Sikh era’s contributions, Haveli’s of Kharak Singh and Mahrani Jinda, were left as they were.

The Diwan-i-Khas. Source: Muhammad Ashar, available here.

Shah Jahan’s Quadrangle

Shah Jahan is known as the great ‘architect king’, the buildings that he had commissioned are scattered throughout the Indian subcontinent. It thus goes without saying that he contributed some of the most elegant structures to the fort. This quadrangle of the fort only contains two buildings and a garden; Shah Jahan’s Khawabgah, the Diwan-e-Khas and the Char Bagh. Starting with the Diwan-e-Khas or the hall of private audiences, this was the last Mughal addition to the Lahore Fort by Shah Jahan. Its construction was over seen by Wazir Khan; square in plan having three sides with lobed arches. Its northern façade has delicate jail screens that once overlooked the River Ravi. In the center of the pavilion sits a shallow fountain. This was the place where the emperor would sit and meet with dignitaries and ministers. The Diwan was completely made of white marble. Such a structure would have had an appeal for the British residents. It is only natural that the British needed a place of worship within the compound. And so, they converted the Diwan-e-Khas into a garrison church in 1904 AD. In order to do so, they once again had to close the openings, but unlike Jahangir’s sleeping chamber, they used glass. They also filled in the elegant fountain with concrete and blocked the jail screens. One can only imagine how it may have felt, sitting reading hymns in the same location where the Mughal King once sat conducting his business in the presence of ministers and nobles.

The opposite side of the Diwan-e-Khas has the Khawabgah-e-Shahjahani, Shah Jahan’s sleeping chambers, which was also made with marble. In contrast with the Diwan-e-Khas, this was one of the earliest buildings commissioned by Shah Jahan - as naturally a king required a grand room for his slumber. In its heyday, it truly was a sight to behold; decorated with mirrors and ornaments. The candlelight would dance off the mirrors, illuminating the entire quadrangle at night. In front of the rooms are fountains, which would cool the wind during the hot summer nights, an ingenious cooling system that the Sikhs also made use of. Unfortunately the original finishing and designs of the building were seriously compromised during the Sikh era. The British saw no use for this place, so it fell to ruin.

Conclusion

The British made use of the fort as they saw appropriate. Both quadrangles help to propel the understanding that buildings were made to suit the needs and purposes of its inhabitants, even revealing the personality of the people who ordered their construction. The Mughals built grandiose buildings and decorated them with gems and motifs. These structures were constructed to add to the appeal of the fort and be pleasing for the eyes. On the other hand, the British saw no need for such huge buildings, therefore it only made sense to minimalize them to fit their own wants. Architecturally Lahore Fort is very diverse, it allows us a window into the past. Even though much of its monuments have been changed, the majesty remains.

What do you think of Lahore Fort? Let us know below.

References

Rehmani, Anjum. Lahore: History and Architecture of Mughal Monuments. Oxford University Press.

Ahmad, Nazir. Lahore Fort (A Witness to History). Lahore: Sang-e-Meel, 1999.

Nadiem, Ihsan H. Lahore: A Glorious Heritage. Lahore: Sang-e-Meel Publishing, 2006.

Qureshi, Tania. Jahangiri Quadrangle – the emperor’s footprints in Lahore Fort. Daily Times. November 24, 2018.