Independence in Colombia: New Granada’s Revolt of the Comuneros

By the latter half of the 17th century, the rule of Spain in the New World was reaching 200 years. Times were changing, both in the New World and in Europe, and the leaders of Spain knew it. Their problem was what to do about it. Spain had never had a coherent policy in its imperial rule. Since 1492, Spain was seemingly constantly at war, with an endless series of crises thrown into the mix. Solutions had to be found for the here and now, the future would take care of itself.

Erick Redington continues his look at the independence of Spanish America by looking at the 1781 revolt of the comuneros. The revolt was an uprising in New Granada, modern dat Colombia and some of Venezuela. It happened due taxation increases, but importantly was seen as a sign of what was to happen in later years.

If you missed them, Erick’s article on the four viceroyalties is here, Francisco de Miranda’s early life is here, his travels in Europe and the US is here, and his later years is here. Then, you can read about the Abdications of Bayonne here, the start of the Mexican War of Independence here, how Hidalgo continued the war here, the impact of José Morelos here, and the changes of the 1810s here, and Mexico’s sudden independence here.

Manuel Antonio Flórez, Viceroy of New Granada from 1776 to 1781.

New Granada: Colonial Afterthought

For Spain, New Granada was always a backwater. Lacking the gold of New Spain and the silver of Peru, New Granada was never a priority for colonial authorities. It was an afterthought and, when thought of, it was as a cash cow. By the late 18th century, the small amount of gold that had once been mined in the provinces of Popayán, Chocó, and Antioquia was all gone. It was a colonial posting on the ladder to other colonial postings.

The Spanish government had problems figuring out what to do about the colony. They could not even decide what constituted the colony. The Viceroyalty of New Grenada was created in 1719, dissolved in 1724, and recreated in 1739. Venezuela was bounced between New Spain and New Granada. The inland border was ill-defined, and the southern border with Peru was barely mapped.

The Bourbon Reforms attempted to bring order out of the disheveled mess that was Spanish colonial administration. This led to a series of competent viceroys arriving in the colony. Men such as Manuel Antonio Flores, Antonio Caballero y Góngora, and José de Ezpeleta, did show that they could progressively bring improvements to the colony. None stayed longer than seven years, however, preventing any long-term improvements.

Spain Humiliated

By the mid-1700s, Spain had been licking its wounds from a series of wars lost to Britain and her allies. Humiliation after humiliation was eroding the legitimacy of the empire. Every few years seemed to bring another defeat. The predator that was the First British Empire had caught the smell of death on what they saw as their prey, the Spanish Empire. During the War of Jenkins’ Ear, Admiral Vernon attempted to take New Granada from Spain. Although he failed in the attempt, it was a warning to Madrid that something had to be done in New Granada. The other lesson was that Britain needed to be put in its place.

The revolution in Britain’s American colonies presented an opportunity for revenge. This time, unlike in previous wars, the British were having problems subduing their colonies. French money, guns, and especially gunpowder had kept the rebels in the field. With the intervention of France in the American War of Independence, the British now had to suppress their colonies and defeat their ancient enemy. For the first time in decades, Britain seemed vulnerable. With Britain so distracted, perhaps Spain could finally defeat Britain and get back some of the territories that it had lost in previous wars, such as Gibraltar, Minorca, and Florida.

Allying with a rebellious colony was not acceptable to Spain. Allying with France, on the other hand, was old hat by the 1770s. Carlos III and the rest of the Spanish government were determined on going to war. This was a chance that perhaps would not occur again. However, to fight a war, you need money, something Spain did not have much of. Through centuries of gross mismanagement, Spain did not have enough money to defend its empire and fight yet another war with Britain. More money needed to be found, defenses had to be fitted quickly, and ships had to be built so that Spain would not miss its window of opportunity.

The Engine of War is Money

It was decided to increase taxes on the colonies. With little sense of proportion, these taxes were levied and fell very heavily on New Granada. Taxes on everyday commodities were (and still are) popular since the tax base is so broad; therefore, they increased taxes on tobacco. Brandy was taxed to get money from the wealthy and aguardiente was taxed to squeeze the poor. Import taxes were increased. Poll taxes were levied to make sure everyone paid their fair share. Laws against tax evasion were tightened and the authorities cracked down on smuggling, further increasing prices for those who could not afford it.

Smuggling was endemic in Spain’s colonies as the government had few funds to pay for the fleets and the army of customs officials needed to stop the smugglers. Now, Spain was building a fleet for war and this fleet could also be used to reduce smuggling as well as for coastal defense. More royal monopolies were created to bring revenue directly to the crown, but also, again, raising prices due to a lack of competition. That competition, the colonial-born middle classes and those who strive to better their lot through hard work and natural brilliance, were now shut out from yet another avenue to rise in society. Even the natives were not exempt. They had always been exempted from sales taxes. Now, the crown would tax all transactions.

The people were tired of mismanagement and now they had to pay for a war they neither wanted a part of nor cared about. A perfect storm was being created. A large empire was being distracted by a foreign war while at the same time driving discontent among the very people that were expected to support that war.

In early 1781, small acts of defiance throughout the colony began to coalesce into a larger movement. One of the biggest losers in the new taxes, the colony’s taverns, became hives of dissent as people grumbled about paying higher prices for the alcohol and tobacco that were, in many cases, the only outlets in their hard and dreary lives. Out of these taverns, people began organizing and choosing leaders. These organized bodies began to be known as communes.

Resistance Begins

North of Bogotá, Manuela Beltrán, a store owner from Villa del Socorro was growing more and more frustrated. An extreme anomaly in New Granada, Manuela was a woman who owned her own business. She was also able to read and write, which was exceptionally uncommon for the area as illiteracy was near-universal in the region. As one of the few people who could read, she took upon herself the duty of reading out newly published decrees to the people of her town.

On March 16, 1781, she read a decree on the new taxes that were decreed by the colonial government. As she read, the crowd began grumbling and showing its displeasure. Being angered herself, she tore down the proclamation to the cheers of the crowd. This act in itself was an act of treason, and the die was now cast. Manuela had started a rebellion.

The rising in Villa del Socorro led to armed uprisings in the surrounding areas. The people began striking throughout the area north of Bogotá. Their demands were familiar to colonial rebellions, the repeal of unwanted taxes, and colonial access to appointments in the administration. Surprisingly, they also called for the protection of traditional rights and privileges for the natives. This was a movement that had tapped into discontent among all social classes in the region. This led to a large force of disparate people coming together who had, hitherto, been divided along racial and class lines.

The rebels, now under the leadership of Juan Francisco Berbeo, began a march on Bogotá. The colonial authorities assumed that this was just a mass of angry peasants and sent a small force out to disperse the rebels. They did not know that the rebels now numbered in the 10,000-20,000 range. The colonial force was easily pushed aside.

Success!

Here was an existential threat. An army of this size could easily take Bogotá and potentially cause the whole colony to rise. Despite calling for help from other areas of the empire, the colonial authorities in Bogotá could not guarantee help would come. The American Revolution had transformed into a world war with battles being fought from North America to Africa to India.

If Bogotá fell, and with it New Granada, there was no guarantee that Spain would be able to retake the colony. The rebels could even potentially receive aid from the British in a bit of turnabout. Extreme measures had to be taken. Unexpectedly, brutal repression was not the chosen route. When the rebel army arrived just outside Bogotá, the colonial authorities decided to negotiate.

The rebels could scarcely believe their luck. The colonial authorities not only agreed with their grievances almost immediately, they also agreed to repeal all of the laws that caused such problems in the first place. The onerous taxes would be repealed. All these promises were not just made, the colonial authorities also agreed to put it all in writing! The dreams of the rebels had come true. Bad government would be removed from the colony, and everyone would live happily ever after. They had won. They had not even had to storm Bogotá, which would have probably been bloody for everyone concerned. This war for their rights was over. Everyone could go home.

The Inevitable Backlash

The rebel force now began to disperse. There was no reason to remain as a unified force since they had achieved everything they set out to do. Thinking they had won and letting their guard down, they moved toward home. Then the reinforcements the colonial authorities had called for (but not really expected) at the beginning of the rebellion arrived. The authorities that had made the agreement with the rebels had declared that, as an agreement made under duress is no agreement at all, it was all void.

The reinforcements were let loose on the now-dispersed rebels. City after city was occupied and known rebels were rooted out and executed. Through a reign of terror, people began selling out their neighbors to save themselves. A culture of denunciation further embittered the populace. All of the hated taxes were enforced as harshly as they could be as much out of a sense of vengeance as for maximizing revenue. Some of the rebels attempted to reconstitute themselves under the leadership of a man named José Antonio Galán. These would fight on for a while but would be captured and executed in the end.

A Sign of Things to Come

The Revolt of the Comuneros was a sad affair that left little but burning memories of hatred and grievance behind it. There were many parallels in it to the later rising under Hidalgo in New Spain. A charismatic leader leading a cross-class movement full of idealistic vigor marching on the capital. Like Hidalgo later, this group also hesitated when it was time to strike. Like their cousins to the north, the New Granadans probably could have taken their capital. They showed their naiveté by buying into everything the colonial authorities told them. It all seemed too good to be true—because it was. Like Hidalgo, the backlash was terrible and resulted in terrible death and destruction.

Unlike Hidalgo, the time was not right. Although the rebellion of the British North American colonies could have served as an example of something more, the elements of later rebellions were not there yet. The Spanish government was still intact, and in fact, would be part of the victorious alliance with France and the Dutch Republic during the American War of Independence. Spain still had the ability to project power and enforce its rule in the colonies. Though a rickety structure, the Spanish Empire would stand…for now.

What do you think of the Revolt of the Comuneros? Let us know below.

Now, read about Francisco Solano Lopez, the Paraguayan president who brought his country to military catastrophe in the War of the Triple Alliance here.

The Latin American Wars for Independence: What is the Background to Colombia’s Independence from Spain?

The Latin American wars for independence were perhaps the most important series of events that occurred on the American continent during the early part of the 19th century. From around 1810 to the 1820s, the dominance of Spain over much of the continent was broken, and many new republican states were created.

The enormous extension of the territory dominated by Spain led to the formation of many autonomous territories that approached the independence question in different ways, each one with their own kinds of social struggles, cultural identities, political complexities and economic structures.

In this series of articles, we will approach the independence wars in the northern part of South America, in the territory that would become the Republic of Colombia. We will look through the reasons that this specific land had for independence, and the many different events that led to the final formation of the new republican state.

Guillermo Morales explains.

Pedro Messia de la Cerda, Viceroy of New Granada from 1761 to 1773.

The Spanish Empire

To understand the series of events that resulted in the independence struggle, first it is important to understand the political, social and economic structures that existed in the region when it was a colony of the Spanish Empire.

The territory that would later become Colombia, in those times was known as the ‘Nuevo Reino de Granada’ (New Kingdom of Granada). After the Spanish conquest over the many native kingdoms that existed in the region, they established a governorship that was dependent on the viceroyalty of Peru. But in 1717, King Phillip V decided to create a new viceroyalty aside from the already existing ones in Mexico and Peru, so their American colonies, and the multiple riches in them, could be better administered. The viceroyalty of Nueva Granada existed at first from 1717 to 1723, when it was temporally abolished, but it was reinstated in 1739.

The viceroyalty was governed by a viceroy designated directly by the king. He was usually a military commander born in the Spanish peninsula, and who usually had never lived on the land he was to rule.  Alongside the viceroy a court body called the ‘Real Audiencia’ (Royal Audience) governed over the colony. Their members were called the ‘oidores’ (hearers) and their function was to apply the law of the kingdom over the viceroyalty.

The government was based in the city of Santa Fe de Bogota, high on the Andean mountains, in the center of what used to be the kingdom of the Muisca. The city was located near the center of the viceroyalty, and access to it was usually difficult. From the Caribbean coast travelers had to navigate through the broad Magdalena River, which went through dense jungles, and from there, ascend to the mountains on mules, horses or ‘silleteros’ (natives who carried chairs on their backs for travelers to sit on).

Another important city in the viceroyalty was the walled city of Cartagena, which was located along the Caribbean coast, and was one of the main ports in the American colonies, being a place where merchants sent gold, silver and jewels to Spain, or received slaves for the haciendas and mines in the colony. Also on the Caribbean coast was the port of Santa Marta, the oldest city in the colony. Down the Magdalena River were the river ports of Mompox and Honda, and located on the Andean cordilleras were the cities of Ocaña, Pamplona, Cucuta, Socorro, Tunja, Popayan, Cali and Pasto. There was also the port of Buenaventura on the Pacific coast. On the east of the Andean cordillera there were the so called ‘llanos orientales’ (eastern plains), an enormous extension of plains that were mostly uninhabited, with the exception of natives, ranchers called ‘llaneros’ (plain men), and missionaries trying to convert the natives to Catholicism.

Officially the territory of the Viceroyalty of Nueva Granada comprised what now are the countries of Colombia, Venezuela and Ecuador, but the latter territories had a large degree of autonomy. Venezuela, with its capital in the city of Caracas, was governed by a Captain General designated by the king, so the region was named the ‘Capitania General de Venezuela’. Ecuador (which was known then as Quito, the same name as its capital city), had their own Audiencia, with its president as the main authority over the territory, so for this reason this region was known as the ‘Presidencia de Quito’.

Structure of Society

The Spanish conquerors, facing the enormous diversity found in the colony (white Europeans, native Americans, black slaves and people of mixed origins), built a heavily structured social pyramid based on the so called ‘pureza de sangre’ (blood purity). This system came from the times of the Spanish ‘Reconquista’ when the European Spaniards were at war with the Muslim ‘moors’ on the Iberian Peninsula. When they had control of all of the peninsula, they tried to differentiate themselves from the Muslim and Jewish people that still lived there, and also from the ones who converted to Catholicism, called ‘conversos’, who were mistrusted. They brought the same idea to the American colonies, but now differentiated the white Europeans from the Native Americans and the African slaves.

For this reason, the Spanish designated different names and scales of ‘mestizaje’ (mixed-blood), given that the conquistadors had a lot of children with the natives and the African slaves. For example, the child of a Spaniard and a native would be a ‘mestizo’, the child of a Spaniard and an African would be a ‘mulatto’, the child of an native and an African would be a ‘zambo’, the child of a mestizo and a Spaniard would be a ‘castizo’, the child of a mestizo and a native a ‘cholo’, and so on.

Usually the white Europeans represented the higher aristocratic class, while the mixed people and the natives represented a lower class, and the Africans were relegated to the lowest slave class. This was translated in the design of the cities, with the higher class living near the city main square, and the rest living in the outskirts of the city.

The race based system was used by the authorities to determine who was allowed in certain political, military or religious posts; whose children were allowed to enter in the important schools of the colonies; or who could buy an aristocratic title. For this, meticulous investigations over people’s lineage were made, so it could be determined that there was no ‘mala sangre’ (bad blood) in them. Because of this, many paid to erase any undesirable bad blood from their family trees.

The sole fact of being born on the colonies and not on the Spanish peninsula could reduce someone’s status. The criollos (white people who were descendants from Spaniards, but were born in the ‘Indies’), normally shared the same privileges as the peninsular whites, but they were not the preferred option for higher political posts, like oidor of the Real Audiencia, or viceroy. If they went to the Peninsula, they were treated as less than the Spanish-born whites, and called the disdainful title ‘manchado de la tierra’ (stained by the land).

But life was worse for mixed people, Africans, and natives. Native numbers were severely reduced after the ‘Conquista’ because of the brutality of the war, the introduced diseases and the forced labor that they had to do for the Spanish.  Still, the Spanish Crown tried to protect them from total annihilation, passing laws that forced the conquistadors not to mistreat them, and giving them some land, called ‘Resguardos’. Their towns were separated from the European cities, and were called ‘pueblos de indios’.

Black Africans had it even worse. As they were slaves, they were forced into brutal conditions on the mines or the haciendas. Many Spaniards considered the Africans to have no soul, so they were basically on the same level as animals, although some at least tried to give their slaves the chance to hear Mass. Some ran away from their owners, and managed to build settlements deep in the jungle, the so called ‘Palenques’, that were so distant from the European settlements, that in the end the Spanish authorities decided to leave them alone.

All this social and ethnic division led to severe tension between the different classes. For instance, the Criollos were upset that the natives were allowed to abandon the haciendas to move to the ‘Resguardos’, reducing the available workforce. Natives and Africans also mistrusted criollos, as they felt that any demand they made to the crown would be to worsen their own living conditions. This is why, later during the independence movement, some natives and Africans, disdainfully called ‘pardos’ (browns) by the whites, preferred to side with the crown. Even so, Spaniards were also severely mistrusted by the general population, who mockingly called them ‘chapetones’.

Decline of Spanish Rule

The increasing racial and social tensions, combined with the misinformed policies of the Spanish ‘Metropoli’ (the name given to the center of government), led to a path that ended in the independence wars. One of the policies was that manufactured goods were only to be produced on the Spanish peninsula, while the colonies produced raw materials that could only be sold to Spain, and not any other country. While this worked quite well in places like Peru (which was a major producer of silver), in Nueva Granada it was problematic, as there weren’t many mines for precious metal production, and the ones that existed, were located in places like the jungles of the Choco on the Pacific coast, which were far away from the major cities.

Because of this, the general population, being far away from the main economic activities of the colony, began to fall into poverty. The workers in the mines, being slaves or natives, essentially received no compensation for their work. Little wealth was produced, and when wealth was created, it was concentrated in Criollo and Spaniard aristocratic hands.

Spain established itself as the sole producer of manufactured goods for the colonies, blocking all commerce with other countries, and in general forbid the colonies from creating their own industries. Most people were unable to buy to expensive products brought from Spain, so a working class, called the ‘artesanos’ (craftsmen), supplied the general populace with products like clothing and furniture. Even so, they couldn’t create a colony based industry, as they mostly worked in an informal economy that usually was heavily restricted or even repressed by the colonial authorities.

This fragile economic system was very susceptible to any new policy implemented by Spain, like new taxes. This meant that the situation in the colonies by the end of the 18th century was very far from being stable, and that a collapse of Spanish authority would come sooner rather than later.

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Sources

Mejía, Germán. Historia concisa de Colombia. Bogotá: Editorial Universidad Javeriana, 2014.

Tirado Mejía, Álvaro. Nueva Historia de Colombia Tomo I. Bogotá: Editorial Planeta, 1998.

Bushnell, Davis. Colombia: a nation in spite of itself. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993.

Liévano Aguirre, Indalecio. Los Grandes Conflictos Sociales y Económicos de Nuestra Historia. Bogotá: Ediciones Nueva prensa, 1960.