The improbable lives of Ambrosio O’Higgins and his son, Bernardo, would change the history of South America forever. Two men, father and son, both strivers and achievers. Two men who did not take the traditional paths to power and high office. Two men, who through a series of improbable events, would both become, in their own ways, among the founders of the nation of Chile. The chain of events would begin, of all places, in County Sligo in Ireland.
Erick Redington continues this series on the O’Higgins family by looking at the later life and incredible successes of Bernardo O’Higgins.
If you missed it read part one on Ambrosio O’Higgins’ life here, and part 2 on Bernardo O’Higgins’ early life here.
O'Higgins meeting Jose San Martin at the 1818 Battle of Maipu.
After the disaster at Rancagua, Bernardo, the remnant of his troops, and a core of supporters found themselves exiles over the Andes. He decided to bring his mother and sister along to Buenos Aires, the capital of the United Provinces of La Plata. La Plata had also been in revolt against Spain, but unlike the Chileans, they had been able to hold its own against attempts at reconquest. When it appeared the Spanish were going to attack Buenos Aires, Bernardo immediately volunteered to serve in La Plata’s army. He was sent west to Mendoza to prevent an invasion from royalist controlled Chile. While here, Bernardo would meet José de San Martín.
In North America, the United States had been able to achieve its independence with the mother country still on its northern border. The viewpoint in South America was radically different. Many of the leaders of the government in Buenos Aires and generals in the army like San Martín believed that none of the peoples of the continent could only be truly independent unless Spain was fully driven from South America. For San Martín, Chile and Peru would have to be secured and the Spanish driven out.
While in Mendoza, Bernardo would continue his military schooling. He asked friends to send him modern books on the art of war. He would devise elaborate and bold plans for the liberation of his homeland. One plan presented to San Martín called for a three-pronged offensive relying on a naval invasion as well as recruitment in Chile of local militia and over 6,000 local natives. This was indicative of Bernardo’s military thinking, bold, but overly complicated plans relying on multiple moving parts. San Martín was more practical minded. He wanted one army to cross the Andes and focus on the central region of Chile. Under his plan, San Martín would lead the Army of the Andes with two divisions led by Generals Miguel Soler and Bernardo O’Higgins. On January 9, 1817 the army was mobilized and began crossing the Andes. Events would move very quickly.
Andes crossing
The Andes is the longest above sea level mountain range in the world. The highest mountain is over 22,000 feet (almost 7,000 meters) tall. Even though the army crossed at the start of summer, it was not an easy journey. This journey and the legends attached to it would become one of the great historical epics of the Latin American wars of independence. Napoleon crossing the St. Bernard pass and Hannibal crossing the Alps with his elephants both went over less rough terrain than did the Army of the Andes. This was not an area where the army could live off the land. All supplies had to be carried. If it did not go perfectly, disaster would quickly result. Fortunately, the leadership of the Army of the Andes was superb, and the leadership was able to drive their men to cross this imposing mountain range in only a month, with the army intact.
On February 4, 1817, forward elements of the army made first contact with the royalists in Chile. This took the royalist administration completely by surprise. They were not expecting an entire army to be able to cross the mountains undetected. San Martín had transported over 3,500 men into Chile. The royalist forces arrayed to meet them only numbered about 1,800 men. This was not a place the royalists were expecting an attack.
Battle of Chacabuco
On February 12, 1817, the Battle of Chacabuco began. The plan was to have Bernardo lead a diversionary attack while having General Soler deliver the main punch and destroy the royalist force. Whether it was from enthusiasm or impetuousness is disputed, but Bernardo led his men into a full-on attack against the royalists. This forced San Martín to speed up his plans and move Soler into battle earlier than anticipated. Although the battle was a resounding victory for the Army of the Andes, and hundreds of prisoners were taken, the royalist force was not destroyed and they were able to escape to the very south of Chile, where they would prove to be an irritant for a while longer.
The Battle of Chacabuco was typical Bernardo. He was a skilled commander and leader of men. He could throw a punch with the troops under his command. Enthusiastic for his men and his cause, he was driven to impetuosity. If he had made his attack only a diversion, as was originally planned, perhaps the remainder of the royalist force would have been eliminated. Many battles are won or lost on decisions made by commanders whether seize the initiative or strictly follow a plan. Although historians would argue over Bernardo’s decisions in this battle, the result was that the people of Chile gave him credit for the victory, and his star now shown brighter than ever.
After the victory at Chacabuco, the royalists fled Santiago and retreated to their stronghold in Peru. On February 15th, an assembly of notables convened and elected a new governor of Santiago to replace the outgoing royalists. That person was José de San Martín. He, however, did not want the job. He was not Chilean and was loyal to his own country. San Martín sent a note refusing the position. In response, the next day the notables elected him again. Again, he refused. San Martín, and the leadership in Buenos Aires, wanted Bernardo. San Martín had written instructions from Buenos Aires that Bernardo was to be made leader of Chile. It had already been decided before the Army of the Andes even set out. The fact that Bernardo was the hero of Chacabuco only eased a result that was predetermined. The assembly of notables chose Bernardo to be the Supreme Director of Chile. This began what was called the Patria Nueva period of Chilean history. It would last until 1823.
The task facing Bernardo was daunting. The old revolutionary junta was gone. The assembly of notables was just an assembly, elected by no one. An entire government had to be created from scratch. Government ministries had to be built from the ground up. An army and navy had to be patched together out of scattered militias. Only a man of Bernardo’s boundless energy and enervated mind could have tackled this task. The son of the reforming viceroy would now, finally, be the reforming Supreme Director.
Leadership
Nothing happens without money. The new Chilean government needed money badly. To Bernardo, there was an obvious solution, and three days after his appointment, he ordered all royalist property in the country to be confiscated. The money that came from this property allowed for the funding of new government departments. “Battalion number 1 of the Army of Chile” was created, the first organized national army unit. An official government newspaper was created to turn out propaganda for the literate classes. Ever the scholar, Bernardo decreed the founding of a military academy. Bernardo was a reformer, and he was intent on establishing the Chilean state correctly from the start.
In his enthusiasm, there were darker elements. Early on, a government commission was created which would hold tribunal over every Chilean and their role in independence. Everyone in the country would have their patriotic and unpatriotic actions recorded. All Chileans needed to justify to the state, and their fellow citizens, the title of patriot. If you were not a patriot, you could be labeled a royalist and your property would be confiscated. Any Chilean who fled was automatically classified as a royalist. Bernardo’s hammer came down especially hard on the Church. Many priests and friars who preached obedience and loyalty to the Spanish King were exiled and the Church properties they oversaw confiscated. The Bishop of Santiago was even expelled, and Bernardo would appoint a replacement.
Another controversial act of Bernardo’s early reign was his participation in the founding of the Logia lautarina in Santiago. The Logia Lautarina was a shadowy, secret organization dedicated to the independence of South America. By the statutes of the Lautaro, as it became commonly known as, if any member became a government official, that person could take no action without consulting the lodge. Also, no major appointment could be made without lodge approval. Members of the Lautaro filled many government posts and held large numbers of army commissions. Many of these members were Argentines. From August 1817 until San Martín left Chile in August 1820, the public perception was that the Lautaro ran the country. Since perception can be reality for many people, a shadowy secret cabal from another country was the true power behind the Supreme Director, and thus Chile was not truly free. This resentment would only grow.
South
With the government beginning to stabilize, a problem in the south began to materialize. When the Spanish retreated from Chacabuco, they had retired to Talcahuano, about 300 miles (about 500km) from Santiago. While at Talcahuano, the royalist commander, General Ordóñez, had retrained his forces and reinforced to about 1,000 men. The Araucanians were favorably disposed to the royalists since the benevolent treatment they had received from Captain-General O’Higgins all those years before. It was decided by the government (and the Lautaro) that Bernardo would delegate his office to Colonel Quintana, another member of the Lautaro, and proceed south with the army to defeat the royalists.
The farther south Bernardo’s army marched, the worse it was. The army set out in April, which is mid-autumn in the southern hemisphere. The area had been stripped due to the constant fighting. The terrain was mountainous, and the threat of ambush was ever-present. The people of this region were predominantly royalist sympathizers, and coldly received the patriot army. The terrain around Talcahuano seemed tailor made for defense. Hills surround the port, which was situated on a jutting point of land. Thirty guns stood ready to shoot down any attackers. Since they were marching in autumn, rains turned the roads into mud tracks. In keeping character, Bernardo developed an elaborate plan which called for a diversionary frontal assault which would cover for an amphibious landing against the town itself. Due to the horrible conditions, the boats prepared for the landing could not be brought into position. Despite this, also keeping to character, Bernardo ordered the frontal assault to commence anyway. Progress was made, including taking southern positions and separating the royalists from their Araucanian allies. The next day, however, the royalists were still in position and Ordóñez still had fight left in him. Faced with worsening conditions and dwindling numbers due to casualties and attrition, Bernardo ordered his army to retreat to Concepción.
The fight in the south now devolved into guerrilla warfare with burning villages and atrocity causing reprisal causing atrocity and the cycle grew ever bloodier. After another failed attempt to take Talcahuano, Bernardo decided to try a new tactic: diplomacy. As the head of state, he felt that perhaps the benevolent intervention of a third party would convince the Spanish to end their attempts to reconquer their former colony. He wrote to the Prince Regent of Britain, the future George IV. Bernardo offered to open the ports of Chile to British trade and investment. Nothing came of this at the time, but many would see this as part of what they interpreted as Bernardo’s attempt to turn Chile into the England of South America.
With no response forthcoming from the British, the bad news kept coming. The Carreras, Bernardo’s old rivals for power in Chile, were back. The Lautaro, was becoming more unpopular, and Colonel Quintana, the acting Supreme Director, along with it. Even Bernardo was becoming concerned about the attitude of the country. Worst of all, the royalists were embarking on another expedition from Peru to reconquer Chile. Fortunately for Bernardo, San Martín, who had attempted to go home in retirement, had returned to Chile and was ready to take command once more. To prevent any Chileans from being cut off, the army facing Ordóñez was withdrawn north.
Independence
It was at this time that Bernardo decided to take the ultimate step in Chile’s relationship with Spain. Officially, the Chileans were fighting for their rights under the Spanish crown. During the retreat, while at the city of Talca, Bernardo signed the Chilean Declaration of Independence, with no ties whatsoever to the Spanish king. To Bernardo, this represented not some mythologized breaking with the past, but as a way of telling all Chileans that there was now no turning back. There would be no return to Spanish rule.
In order to support this new declaration, San Martín marched south and reinforced Bernardo’s army to a total of 6,600 men. This force gave the Chileans enough to press the royalists back. After some jockeying for position, the royalists decided their only hope of survival was a frontal night attack. As many of the royalist troops were veterans of the Peninsular War, they had much more experience night fighting than their colonial adversaries. Although outnumbered, on March 16, 1818, the royalists achieved a complete victory, killing, wounding, or dispersing almost half of San Martín’s army. When his division was shattered, Bernardo received a wound in the arm which took months to fully heal. Much of the demoralization among the rebel troops came from rumors that both Bernardo and San Martín had been killed. Much of the Argentine artillery train had been captured, and the patriot army had lost significant amounts of supplies. This battle, the Second Battle of Cancha Rayada was the only defeat the patriots would suffer during the campaign, but it was such a shock and so complete a defeat that there was talk amongst the remainder of the army about retreating across the Andes. Even in his wounded state, Bernardo refused. “As long as I remain alive and have a single Chilean to follow me, I shall go on fighting against the enemy in Chile,” he is attributed to have said.
The rumors of death in the army’s leadership, along with the panic of the populace provided the perfect opportunity for the return of the Carreras, Bernardo’s old nemeses. In order to secure his position, a still wounded and somewhat feverish, Bernardo rode for Santiago. On March 24th, only eight days after the Battle of Cancha Rayada, Bernardo formally took up his office of Supreme Director again. The wounded revolutionary hero cut a dashing figure, and his very presence and authority was enough to prevent any move by the Carrerists.
Bernardo had no intention of staying away from battle for long. The royalists were advancing toward Valparaíso. Bernardo used his moral and legal authority to organize supplies, weapons, and provisions for every available man who could be made to fight. When the royalists arrived, the Battle of Maipú was fought on April 5th. Though this battle only lasted two hours, it would finally remove the threat from the royalists in the south. While the patriots lost about 1,000 men, the royalist army was annihilated. This victory, so short and decisive, would finally end the royalist military threat to Chile.
The consummation of Chilean independence increased the wrath, and the plotting, of the Carrerists. The younger brothers of José Miguel began plotting to invade Chile and either install the senior Carrera as head of state or begin an insurgency to overthrow Bernardo. When the two younger brothers arrived in Mendoza, they were captured and placed on trial. Although prominent Chileans attempted to intervene, and US Consul William Worthington pled the Carreras’ case, Bernardo was unmoved, as was San Martín. After news arrived of the defeat at Cancha Rayada, the people of Mendoza panicked, and the local administration decided on the execution of the brothers. They were informed of their sentences and that they would die by firing squad. Four hours after the sentence was served, a message arrived from San Martín announcing the victory at Maipú and calling for an end to the prosecution of the Carreras.
Feuds
Although there is no direct evidence that Bernardo ordered their executions, the people of Chile believed that he had. The Carreras were not very popular throughout the country at large, but that members of the nation’s elite could be executed on the word of the Supreme Director was disturbing to many. Further, many people also blamed the sinister influence of the Lautaro. Protests began in the capital. A mob of angry citizens, stirred up by Carrerists, broke into the courtyard of the Supreme Director’s palace. The leaders of the mob were arrested, but Bernardo’s position as national leader began to feel shaky.
Next was Manuel Rodríguez, a guerilla leader and former secretary to the old junta that both Carrera and Bernardo had been members of. When Rodríguez began to become more dangerous to the nation’s stability, Bernardo offered to pay to send him to either Europe or North America. Rodríguez appeared to accept, but went into hiding, participating in the aborted Carrera brothers’ conspiracy. When Rodríguez was finally captured and placed under arrest, the time-honored excuse of “shot while trying to escape” was used to justify what was an execution in all but name. Whether Bernardo had anything to do with it was immaterial. The people believed that he and the Lautaro orchestrated the murder.
From his perch in Montevideo, José Miguel was driven by bitter hatred and a desire for revenge not only against Bernardo, but against his Argentine backers as well. Letters and pamphlets were written calling for the overthrow of the government in Santiago. In Buenos Aires, governmental instability led to a change in leadership. The new leaders invited José Miguel to form the Legión Chilena, a force dedicated to overthrowing the Supreme Director and taking power. As would regularly happen, another new government quickly took power in Buenos Aires, and Carrera, along with his Legión, had to take to the countryside. When his troops had plundered their way to Mendoza, the governor there was able to defeat Carrera and capture him. He was expeditiously tried by court martial, convicted and executed. Bernardo should have been able to breath a sigh of relief. After all, his most bitter domestic enemy was gone, and its faction was decapitated. The resentment from the Chilean elite, however, only increased against Bernardo.
Invasion
The struggle with Spain continued without the Carreras. In November 1818, perhaps the most important appointment of Bernardo’s tenure as Supreme Director came when he appointed Lord Cochrane as Vice Admiral and Commander of the Chilean Navy. The strange and mercurial Cochrane would go on to fight with much of the Chilean government, but Bernardo recognized his talents and hoped that an Englishman could build the best navy in South America. Cochrane’s brilliance in blockading the Spanish fleet based in Peru would make Chile free from threat of naval invasion from Spanish royalists.
With the Spanish Navy neutralized, now was time for the final act of liberation, the invasion of Peru. On August 10, 1820, the Army of the Liberation of Peru embarked on ships of the Chilean navy for a seaborne invasion of the final royalist stronghold. Bernardo believed that the army had only to show itself, and the people of Peru would greet them as liberators. Through a series of daring attacks along the Peruvian coast, royalist defenses were weakened. The councils of the royalists were divided. Some called for a life-or-death defense of Lima, the premier city of Spanish America. Others wanted a retreat north into the mountains. In the end, little effective defense was made. On July 2, 1821, the patriots entered Lima without having to fight for the city. Unfortunately, San Martín allowed the defenders to escape to the north to fight another day.
San Martín would have to pursue the royalists. This protracted the war. He began sending message after message to Bernardo back in Chile requesting supplies. The Chileans were promised the army would live off the country and resented having to pay for another’s liberation, little remembering that their liberation would have been nearly impossible without the help of the Army of the Andes. Resentment grew, and the natural focus for that resentment was the Supreme Director.
Despite the continuing war, as well as occasional royalist bandits and Araucanian attacks, Bernardo was determined to reform his country and mold it into his image. Criminals and royalist prisoners were tasked with building roads and canals planned since the time of his father’s Captain-Generalcy. Schools were built to educate youth. While the improvements may have been popular, using prisoners was seen as heavy handed, and the funds for them had to be extracted through loans and taxes, already considered too high to begin with. Bernardo’s popularity continued to decrease. Needing to do something to bring stability to the country and improve his position with the citizenry, he issued a proclamation calling for elections for a new national assembly.
Two years after the invasion of Peru, San Martín and Bolivar met at Guayaquil. Afterward, San Martín finally went into retirement. But the war still went on. The Chilean army was still far from home. Lord Cochrane had, by this time, withdrawn from his fleet to his estate. Taxes were too high. The Carrera faction was still making rumbles against him. On November 19th, an estimated 8.5 magnitude earthquake struck Valparaiso, damaging much of the city. Many in the country saw the earthquake as a sign that the leadership of Chile, especially the Supreme Director, had lost God’s favor.
Rebels
The man that all opposition looked to was Bernardo’s old friend Ramón Freire. The two had fought together for years against the royalists. Both had been in the Army of the Andes and participated in its greatest triumphs. Bernardo appointed his friend as Intendant of Concepción. Over time, however, the two had a falling out and Freire began to grow frustrated with both his position and with his former friend. He would eventually resign in 1822. When Concepción went into open rebellion against the Supreme Director, Bernardo wrote to him, asking for his help in calming the situation. Instead, Freire voiced his support for the people of Concepción, and denounced Bernardo for acting against the wishes of the people. Other areas began rising in solidarity with Concepción.
Bernardo attempted to placate the rebels. Some economic reforms were repealed. A few unpopular ministers resigned. Bernardo called on Freire to send delegates to negotiate and end the uprising. By now, the whole country had turned against Bernardo. Led by the Intendant of Santiago, an assembly was called together for January 28, 1823. After a delegation had met with Bernardo and been “roughly treated,” the assembly grew anxious and angry. They were afraid Bernardo would disperse them by force. Once it looked like force would be used by both sides, members of the assembly and Bernardo agreed to meet. The assembly called for him to resign. Bernardo refused. Then a letter was brought to him explaining that no agreement could be had with Freire in the south. After reading the letter, Bernardo resigned as Supreme Director.
After resigning, Bernardo was placed under house arrest. Many Carreristas were openly calling for his execution. He had a collapse in his health, causing headaches and temporary loss of sight. Six months after his resignation, he was finally allowed out of house arrest and allowed to leave the country. His original destination was to be Ireland. He would live out the rest of his life in his ancestral homeland. But it was not to be. While stopped in Peru, Bolívar asked Bernardo to stay in the country to bolster the new nation’s independence movement. This, to Bernardo’s disappointment, did not include a military command.
Exile
Bernardo would spend 18 years living in Peru as an exile. He would manage his estates with moderate success. These were gifts from Bolivar to help ease the hero’s retirement. He lived long enough to see the political chaos his country had fallen into. Some Chileans would attempt to get him to return and take control again. He would refuse every offer. He would even attempt to mediate during a war between Chile and the Peru-Bolivian Confederation. Several times, he considered writing a biography of his father. “Doing justice to his memory,” he called it. He would never write it.
Over time, Bernardo’s image in Chile improved. Chile needed its heroes. The government gave him his old rank of Captain-General back, although his promised accompanying pension was slow in coming. President Manuel Bulnes of Chile wrote to Bernardo requesting he return to his homeland. Bernardo was, as usual, enthusiastic. Passage to Chile aboard ship was purchased. Upon reaching the port of Callao, Bernardo suffered a heart attack. Recovery was difficult, but two months later, he felt well enough to travel. Once passage was booked a second time, he suffered a second heart attack. He would never see his homeland. On October 23, 1842, Bernardo passed away at the age of 64. His ashes were buried under a monument recounting his greatness.
Bernardo O’Higgins is considered one of the three men primarily responsible for the liberation of Spanish South America, along with Bolívar and San Martín. He led his country through difficult and turbulent times. He was a brave general and a brilliant leader of men. He was a driven reformer whose improvements and modernization laid the foundations for future greatness. After he was exiled, the chaos that he feared engulfed his country. He was a man driven to strive for success in all things. For Bernardo, perhaps his greatest achievement was that all these traits that can be described of him could have easily been ascribed to his father as well. He was truly the heir to his father’s legacy.
What do you think of Bernando O’Higgins’ life? Let us know below.
Now, read about Francisco Solano Lopez, the Paraguayan president who brought his country to military catastrophe in the War of the Triple Alliance here.
Further Reading
Clissold, Stephen. Bernardo O’Higgins and the Independence of Chile. Frederick A. Praeger, Inc., 1968.
Kinsbruner, Jay. Bernardo O’Higgins. Twayne Publishers, 1968.
