The Inquisitions of the Middle Ages were a series of judicial procedures led by the Roman Catholic Church in the later Middle Ages in response to movements that the Church considered heretical. Here, Jeb Smith concludes his series by looking at the Spanish Inquisition, as well as witchcraft, Galileo, and Joan of Arc.
Part 1 on an introduction to the inquisitions is here, part 2 on who the inquisitors were is here, and part 3 on the inquisitions and freedom of speech here.
Witches' Sabbath by Francisco Goya, 1797-98.
The Spanish Inquisitions
The Spanish Inquisition was not a medieval institution. Before 1300, Inquisitions were virtually nonexistent in Spain.[1]The Spanish kingdom of Castile never had an inquisition, and Aragón’s was effectively defunct by around 1450.[2] It might surprise many readers to discover that, while the last person executed by the Inquisition died in 1826 (by hanging, though the Church authorities had demanded burning at the stake[3]), the institution’s power and activities had been steadily declining since the middle of the 18th century. Its foundation was near the end of 1478. However, in this country, the Inquisition’s image and reputed brutality would significantly impact the modern psyche. The Medieval Inquisition evolved into the even more severe Spanish Inquisition during the Renaissance.[4]
The Inquisition began to prevent and extinguish mob violence against the recent Jewish converts in Spain.[5] In 1478, Pope Sixtus IV granted permission to Isabella and Ferdinand to establish an inquisition in Spain. However, in 1482, the Spanish crown took over the Inquisition, despite objections from the Pope and papal inquisitors due to the Jews being denied due process in the proceedings. The Spanish Inquisition was established during the united reign of Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand, a much longer-lasting and more devastating form of the Inquisition than its medieval predecessor. Unlike the medieval version, this rendition integrated a political aspect that made everything more devastating, impassioned, and deadly to human life.[6] Religion, politics, culture and economics all played a role in igniting the Spanish Inquisition.
This was not a “true” Inquisition in that the government, not the Pope, controlled it. As the Spanish Inquisition separated from the church and papal control and came more under the domain of the crown, Pope Sixtus IV condemned it, writing that it “has for some time been moved not by zeal for the faith and the salvation of souls, but by lust for wealth.”[7] Not surprisingly, it contained political aspects. It was not a Catholic but a “national” emergency.[8]Steve Weidenkopf stated the Spanish Inquisition was “Really politics, the crown of Spain wanted to consolidate power in the south where the people were a threat to Spain’s power.”[9] The power and influence of the Pope declined after the medieval period, leading monarchs across Europe to become the new authority. Lacking political influence, the medieval papal-directed Inquisition had less power than and a different motivation to the later secular ones, such as the Spanish Inquisition.[10]
The Inquisition was used to restore the “native” Christian rulers and reclaim those positions of power that ethnic Jews had earned.[11] During the time when Muslim armies were still fighting against the Spanish crown in southern Spain, many Muslims and Jews who lived in Spain converted to Catholicism. However, many Catholic citizens were worried that some of these converts were not true believers and might help the Muslim armies invade cities, open the gates to the cities, or provide information to the enemy.
In addition, during this time there was a plague outbreak and since Jews who followed the Old Testament sanitation and health guidelines in the Laws of Moses were rarely affected, many people blamed them for the epidemic. Moreover, there were large Jewish populations in Spain, and anti-Semitism increased due to the plague. Jews were also present in high positions in the government, and many had significant incomes and power. Since some converted Jews still continued to follow many of the customs of Judaism, conspiracy theories started to emerge about false converts seeking to take over the crown, and persecution increased. To stop the persecution of true Jewish converts, the inquisitions were sent mainly to these southern cities; most of the Spanish population did not encounter the Inquisition.[12]
So the Spanish Inquisition was triggered by the mass conversion of Jews to Catholicism, prompting questions about their sincerity that needed investigation. As early as 1391, persecution of Jews started, due to jealousy and other motivations. Thousands of Jews were killed during this time. To escape persecution, many more Jews converted and also obtained high positions, especially in the royal and financial sectors, though the legitimacy of their conversions was often questioned.
Many consider the year 1492, remembered chiefly now as the year of Columbus, to have also been the foundation year of modern and unified Spain. At the very beginning of that year Isabella and Ferdinand completed the Reconquista with the fall of Granada, the last remaining Muslim polity in the peninsula, and offered the Jewish population the choice to either convert to Christianity or depart the country within four months.[13]
Operation
Over the centuries, the Spanish Inquisitions included a variety of categories of investigation, such as heresy or Protestantism. A local priest would preach to the population to explain why heresy was wrong. Afterward, an inquisitor would preach and, prior to 1500, provide a grace period for any heretics seeking forgiveness through private confession. Evidence and witnesses would be presented after the grace period, and the accused would face trial. They were provided a lawyer and a chance to repent before the trial began.
During the period of royal control, inquisitors disregarded canon law on certain occasions and relied on mere accusations to condemn heretics. This led to the confiscation of the heretics’ lands, which were then, on occasion, handed over to the crown – a convenient motivator for inquisitors to declare guilty verdicts. Pope Sixtus IV condemned such practices, stating that the inquisitors were acting unlawfully and “moved not by zeal for the faith and the salvation of souls, but by lust for wealth” and “with no regard to law, have imprisoned many unjustly, have subjected them to dire torments and have unjustly declared them heretics and despoiled them, once dead, of their goods.” Leading to the criticism of the Spanish Inquisition that it was a government-led effort to seize property for financial gain. However, even the confiscated property was used to fund the project, barely keeping it financially stable.[14]
At times, accused heretics were unfairly imprisoned for months or even years before trial, simply on suspicion. The names of their accusers were not published or made known (out of concern for the accusers’ safety), leading to corruption and personal disputes between individuals utilizing the authority of the Inquisition for personal use. However, the accused were provided with legal representation, and the court deemed testimony from personal enemies inadmissible. They were also allowed to call witnesses on their behalf.[15]
The Inquisitor prisons were healthier, had more space, and the prisoners were better provided for compared to secular ones, so much so that prisoners made purposeful heretical claims in order to be transferred to them.[16] They had access to a variety of food and wine, and some even authored books while in prison; others were allowed to come and go as they wished.[17]
Imprisonment was not punishment in our modern sense. Historian Henry Kamen writes “The penitentiary system, in which the prison itself was the punishment, did not come into existence in Europe until the nineteenth century. By the Instructions of 1488 Inquisitors could at their discretion confine a man to his own house or to some other institution such as a convent or hospital, with the result that very many ‘prisoners‘ served their sentences in moderate comfort.”[18]
In the inquisitor jails, prisoners could purchase food, comforts, wine, paper, and ink, which some even used to write and publish books.[19] Prisoners received adequate nutrition and medical care and celebrated holidays such as Easter and Christmas.[20]
Torture and Death
If torture was used, the method and duration were recorded. It could not be used for more than 15 minutes, no blood or threat to life and limb could result.[21] The Spanish Inquisitors employed torture less frequently than secular courts did, in fact in only 2% of the cases was it used.[22] Torture could only be used when evidence indicated a guilty verdict but the accused refused to confess. Only a minority of cases, approximately one-third, resorted to torture even when the evidential circumstances permitted it. A confession would immediately stop torture and if a confession was made under torture, the accused was given a day of rest and asked once more without torture.
Helen Rawlings wrote of the Spanish Inquisition, “Inquisitors themselves were skeptical of the efficacy and validity of torture as a method.”[23] The techniques employed were identical to those utilized by secular Europe during that period. Professor Burman noted that it was not until the 17th and 18th centuries that “books inspired and elaborated a legend of violence and torture far worse than the reality of the Inquisition. Though it is undeniable that a good deal of torture took place during the long history of the Spanish tribunal, most serious contemporary historians present a fairer and more balanced interpretation of the Spanish Inquisition.”[24]
The death penalty was reserved only for relapsed heretics who remained unrepentant and defended their views.[25]And throughout his duty, the Inquisitor aimed to preserve a heretic’s life, rather than condemn them to death.[26]Professor Stark said that compared to secular courts of the day, “The Spanish Inquisition was a consistent force for justice, restraint, due process, and enlightenment.”[27] Repentance is what was desired, even from those about to be condemned to death.[28]
The Inquisition was not an all-encompassing force, but a small number of officials (bureaucracy did expand it over time), barely stayed financially afloat and scarcely came into contact with the majority of the population outside of larger towns. It had little to no impact on 90% of the population.[29] Scholar Henry Kamen wrote that outside of specific significant cities, “a town might see an inquisitor maybe once every ten years, or even once a century: many never saw one in their entire history.”[30] Critics have exaggerated the number of executions during the Spanish Inquisition. Professor Stark said that compared to secular courts of the day, "The Spanish Inquisition was a consistent force for justice, restraint, due process, and enlightenment."[31]For instance, only 15 people were executed from 1575-1610, and eight were executed from 1648-1694.[32] One hundred fifty thousand were put on trial during the Spanish Inquisition, but only 3,000 were executed.[33] A large enough number, but this still goes against the common perception of the Inquisition’s unceasing brutality.[34] Only 1.8% of those who stood trial were executed, usually repeat offenders who refused to repent.[35] According to Michael Warren Davis, the state of Texas executes twice as many people per year as the Spanish Inquisitions did.[36] More people in the United States die during certain months from car accidents than in the Spanish Inquisition over 250 years! Speaking of the Spanish Inquisition Professor Edward Peters wrote, “In spite of wildly inflated estimates of the numbers of its victims, it acted with considerable restraint in inflicting the death penalty, far more restraint than was demonstrated in secular tribunals elsewhere in Europe that dealt with the same kind of offenses.”[37]
Positives?
During the time when Europe was experiencing numerous revolutions, the Spanish Inquisition helped keep Catholic Spain unified. The Inquisition helped maintain Spanish religious unity and prevented the (far more deadly) wars that ravaged the rest of Europe during this period. If a major conflict had occurred the loss of life would have been significant, but the Spanish Inquisition indirectly prevented this from happening. More lives were likely saved than lost as a result.
Further, during the 16th and 17th centuries, the craze for witch hunts was almost nonexistent in Spain, in contrast to other parts of Europe where witch hunts were prevalent due to the lack of an Inquisition or a weaker influence of it.[38]Being accustomed to evaluating evidence as lawyers, Inquisitors were among the most vocal and prominent skeptics of the secular witch craze. The Spanish Inquisition made the witch craze almost nonexistent in Spain, whereas many suffered in places that lacked Inquisitors, such as England.[39]
Having a fair and impartial outsider who is trained and knowledgeable about conducting trials can make a significant difference in saving lives from enraged mobs. An excellent example of this is during the middle of the witch craze hysteria in 1612 when Spanish inquisitor Alonso de Salazar Frías investigated 1,802 people accused of witchcraft and, after careful examination of their claimed magical powers and alleged sex with demons, declared, “I have not found even indications from which to infer that a single act of witchcraft has really occurred.”[40] Had these accused individuals been left to the mercy of an angry and fearful mob, it is unlikely that many would have survived.
The secular Spanish Inquisitions during the Renaissance (a movement away from Christendom) are often used to criticize Christians and warn against implementing a Christian-based society. The argument is that if we return to such a society, people will be burned at the stake again. However, it’s worth noting that more modern secular societies have also committed crimes that have been far more devastating to humanity based on their own worldviews and political systems. Comparatively, these crimes make the Inquisition seem peaceful and tolerant.[41] Further, the Spanish Inquisition was basically stopped in its tracks by Inquisitor Alonso de Salazar Frías as regards witch executions.[42]
The consequences of allowing society to become secular have been devastating to human life, liberty, and happiness.[43] During the height of Spanish power and prestige, the Spanish Inquisition reached its peak. Clearly, it did not cause a backward result in the country or lead it into a “dark age.” Also, think of the destructive nature of many modern philosophies such as communism, socialism, Nazism, fascism, nationalism, racism, and blind obedience to the state and how they have killed hundreds of millions of people. Ideas have consequences, and the medieval mind and the medieval Church sought to prevent such damaging ideas from spreading in the name of ‘free speech’.
However, especially in its early years, there was widespread opposition to the Inquisition at various times, especially from local authorities and “compact” towns as they often violated local laws and constitutions and customs, the thing was “new.”[44] Local priests and bishops objected because dealing with heretics and the like during the Middle Ages was left to local control, not a crown-endorsed centralized Inquisition. Further, locals, both lay and clergy, often stated that conversion should be done via “persuasion,” not force.[45] Holding to a more Medieval mindset, conversion is not made by fire but, as one author wrote, “by water” (baptism), which was more successful.[46]
Galileo and Joan of Arc
The trial of Galileo in 1633 is often viewed as an example of the overbearing nature of the Inquisition. However, many facts go unnoticed, and his trial remains, as Professor Burman wrote, “quite different from that often portrayed.”[47]
According to Burman, the belief that Galileo was condemned for his astronomical views is a widespread misconception. The main reason for his condemnation was his involvement in a philosophical dispute related to the Eucharist and his refusal to follow standard “protocol.”[48] Galileo was sentenced to house arrest not for supporting the Copernican system but for violating unrelated Inquisition terms. Galileo often made enemies, and he provoked the Inquisitors. It is worth noting that Inquisitors had previously approved other works by Galileo. His punishment was 22 days in “the handsome and commodious apartment of the official of the Inquisition.”[49] During his stay, he was allowed to hire servants and was required to recite seven Psalms once a week for three years. Additionally, he was put under house arrest but was not subjected to any form of torture.
Another famous post-medieval Inquisition trial was that of Joan of Arc. Her wrongful conviction was not a result of the Inquisition but rather a trial that was clearly and solely influenced by politics. After her death, she was eventually recognized as a saint.[50] She was subjected to a trial by her political adversaries, who handpicked the prosecutor. Those who opposed the unjust trial were incarcerated. Joan of Arc underwent a posthumous retrial conducted by Church authorities, which included supervision by the Inquisitor General, in 1455. She was found not guilty and was declared a saint in 1920.
Witchcraft
The Catholic Church is often held solely responsible and blamed for the witch hunts, but Protestants and secularists also carried out their persecution.[51] Further, witchcraft was subject to the authority of the Inquisitors only if it was linked, which was probably frequent, to heresy.[52] After investigating claims, the Inquisitors were among the first to be skeptical of the witch craze.[53] During the Middle Ages, witchcraft was believed to be aimed at causing harm or destruction to individuals or possessions. Additionally, the observance of witchcraft and pagan festivals was thought to involve making a pact with Satan or other evil entities. As I mentioned earlier, witchcraft persecution was not prevalent during the Middle Ages from 700-1300 A.D. As with heresy, the Inquisitors could not carry out punishment for witchcraft. The civil courts judged them because they were guilty of harming others.[54] Also, like heresy, the accused should be fairly tried: “Judges do not deprive a prisoner of his legal rights without very good cause, for this cannot be but an offense to Almighty God.” And “the accused shall as far as possible be given the benefit of every doubt.”[55]
The mob tends to react quickly and irrationally when they are afraid.[56] During the COVID-19 pandemic, many medical professionals and authorities made claims about the virus, its symptoms, prevention, and more that were based on inadequate data and considerably exaggerated. Yet, despite the paucity of evidence, the mob believed them. Similarly, many authorities fueled the fire during the witch-hunt period by making similar claims about witches. Once the mob was incited, it became incredibly difficult to calm them down.
During times of extreme death rates among loved ones, family, friends, and even church officials, fear can take over people’s minds, cause delusions and inhibit rational thought. In the late 14th century, as Europe was hit by plagues, crop failures leading to famine, wars, increased governmental control and moral decay, people sought to assign blame for what appeared to be divine judgment on the nations. In this emotional and terrifying time, witches (who were both male and female) were widely believed to be in contact with the devil, who was thought to provide them with powers to commit unprecedented acts of evil, accusations based on first-hand testimonies of witches, former witches, and other witnesses.
According to such testimonies, witches engaged in horrifying acts of boiling children alive and consuming them.[57]They were also believed responsible for the numerous natural and other disasters that began during the 14th century.[58] Witches were believed to engage in everything from sexual perversion to child sacrifice during their rituals; even by modern standards, they would find themselves condemned. Witches were believed to have the power to harm people and animals, often by poisoning them. Authorities could only execute someone for practicing witchcraft if they could prove that their dark arts had caused harm to someone.[59] Witches were often accused of murdering children, yet they could not be sentenced unless the victims’ bodies were found.[60] Yet, even confessed witches could still find forgiveness in Jesus.[61]
According to Professor Rodney Stark in Bearing False Witness, the number of claimed witch deaths is often exaggerated. The accurate number is around 10,000, not upward of 100,000.
The infamous Salem Witch Trials are also used to attack a Christian society. Yet, they did not follow Biblical evidence and witness requirements, or trial guidelines. The judge and jury repented publicly, asked God for forgiveness for the mistake they had made and declared they were ignorant of how they violated the Bible’s judicial system, and the families of those who suffered were compensated.[62]
Jeb Smith is the author of Missing Monarchy: What Americans Get Wrong About Monarchy, Democracy, Feudalism, And Liberty (Amazon US | Amazon UK) and Defending Dixie's Land: What Every American Should Know About The South And The Civil War (written under the name Isaac. C. Bishop) - Amazon US | Amazon UK
You can contact Jeb at jackson18611096@gmail.com
Bibliography
-Bede. Ecclesiastical History of the English Nation. New York, London: J.M. Dent; E.P. Dutton, 1910.
-Burman, Edward. The Inquisition: The Hammer of Heresy. Dorset Press, 1992.
-Carroll, Warren H. 1993. The Glory of Christendom. N.p.: Christendom Press.
-Catechism of the Catholic Church: Complete and Updated. Crown Publishing Group, 1995.
-Kors, Alan Charles, and Edward Peters, editors. Witchcraft in Europe, 400-1700: A Documentary History. University of Pennsylvania Press, Incorporated, 2001.
-Davis, Michael Warren. The Reactionary Mind: Why Conservative Isn't Enough. Regnery Gateway, 2021.
-Durant, Will, and Ariel Durant. The Age of Faith (The Story of Civilization, Volume 4) (Story of Civilization). Simon & Schuster, 1980.
-Ferrara, Christopher A. 2012. Liberty, the God That Failed: Policing the Sacred and Constructing the Myths of the Secular State, from Locke to Obama. N.p.: Angelico Press.
-Hoffmann, Richard. An Environmental History of Medieval Europe. Cambridge University Press, 2014.
-Holmes, George, ed. 1988. The Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe. N.p.: Oxford University Press.
-Jarrett, Bede. 2007. Social Theories of the Middle Ages, 1200-1500. N.p.: Archivum Press.
-Jones, Andrew W. 2017. Before Church and State: A Study of Social Order in the Sacramental Kingdom of St. Louis IX. N.p.: Emmaus Academic.
-Kamen, Henry. The Spanish Inquisition: A Historical Revision. Yale University Press, 2014.
-Kors, Alan Charles, and Edward Peters, editors. Witchcraft in Europe, 400-1700: A Documentary History. University of Pennsylvania Press, Incorporated, 2001
-L. PLUNKET, IERNE L. 1922. EUROPE IN THE MIDDLE AGES. London Edinburgh Glasgow Copenhagen New York Toronto Melbourne Cape Town Bombay Calcutta Madras Shanghai, England: OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS.
-Madden, Thomas, director. “The Modern Scholar: Heaven or Heresy: A History of the Inquisition.” 2008.
-Madden, Thomas. “The Medieval World, Part II: Society, Economy, and Culture.” The Great Courses Series, 2019.
-The following citation were derived from Medieval Sourcebook Fordham University (“Confession of Arnaud Gélis, also called Botheler "The Drunkard" of Mas-Saint-Antonin”)(“Confession of Baruch, once a Jew, then baptized and now returned to Judaism”) (GUI, BERNARD, and Translation by David Burr. “BERNARD GUI: INQUISITOR'S MANUAL.”.)(Schroeder, H. J., translator. The Disciplinary Decrees of the Ecumenical Counci,. St. Louis:, B. Herder Book Co., 1937).(Agobard of Lyons, and Translated by W. J. Lewis (aided by the helpful comments and suggestions of S. Barney) from the Latin text in p. 3-15 of: Agobardi Lugdunensis Opera Omnia, edidit L. Van Acker. Turnholt: Brepols, 1981 (Corpus Christianorum. Continuatio Mediaevalis, 52);.Agobard of Lyons (9th Century): On Hail and Thunder.”)
-Pernoud, Regine. Glory of the Medieval World. Dobson Books Ltd, 1950.
-Peters, Edward. Inquisition. University of California Press, 1989.
-Rawlings, Helen. The Spanish Inquisition. Wiley, 2006.
-Smith, Jeb. 2024. Missing Monarchy: What Americans Get Wrong About Monarchy, Democracy, Feudalism, And Liberty.
-Smith, Jeb. 2023. The Road Goes Ever On and On. N.p.: Christian Faith Publishing, Incorporated.
-Stark, Rodney. Bearing False Witness: Debunking Centuries of Anti-Catholic History. Templeton Press, 2017.
-Thatcher, Oliver J. “The Library of Original Sources - Vol. IV: The Early Medieval World, pp. 211-239.” Milwaukee: University Research Extension Co, 1901.
-Tierney, Brian, and Sidney Painter. Western Europe in the Middle Ages, 300-1475: Formerly entitled a History of the Middle Ages, 284-1500. 4th ed., Knopf, 1983.
-Weidenkompf, Steve, director. The Real Story of the Inquisitions. Catholic Answers.
-Weidenkopf, Steve. The Real Story of Catholic History: Answering Twenty Centuries of Anti-Catholic Myths. Catholic Answers, Incorporated, 2017
-Wickham, Chris. Medieval Europe. Yale University Press, 2017.
[1] (Durant 1950, 783)
[2] (Burman 135)
[3] (Kamen 373)
[4] (Jarrett 2007, 210)
[5] (Stark 128)
[6] (Burman 136, 207)(Madden2008)(Smith 2024)
[7] (Kamen 58)
[8] (Burman 151)
[9] (Weidenkopf)
[10] (Peters 57)
[11] (Burman 137)
[12] (Weidenkopf 2017, 114)
[13] (Burman 138)
[14] (Burman 139)(Peters 91)
[15] (Burman 145)
[16] (Kamen 235)
[17] (Kamen 237)
[18] (Kamen 251)
[19] (Burman 145-146)
[20] (Burman 177)
[21] (Stark 122)
[22] (Stark 122)(Peters 92, 112) (Weidenkopf 2017, 122) (Kamen 239-240)
[23] (Rawlings)
[24] (Burman 150)
[25] (Burman 153)
[26] (Burman 153)
[27] (Stark 119)
[28] (Kamen 260-261)
[29] (Kamen 75, 348)
[30] (Kamen 225)
[31] (Stark 119)
[32] (Burman 152-153)
[33] (Peters 87) (Kamen 260-261)
[34] (Burman 156)
[35] (Stark 121-122) (Kamen 248, 254)
[36] (Davis 2021 54)
[37] (Peters 87)
[38] (Stark 124)
[39] (Kamen 293-300)
[40] (Burman 182)
[41] (Smith 2024)
[42] (Kors and Peters 408)
[43] Monarchy
[44] (Kamen 75-76)
[45] (Kamen 60)
[46] (Kamen 77-78)
[47] (Burman 172) “The Trial of Galileo” (Burman)
[48] (Burman 175)
[49] (Burman 174) (Peters 249)
[50] (Burman 105)
[51] (Burman 190)
[52] (Burman 119)
[53] (Peters 111)
[54] (Kors and Peters 204-205)
[55] (Kors and Peters 207-208 220-221)
[56] (Smith 2024)
[57] (Kors and Peters 192, 293)
[58] (Kors and Peters 236)
[59] (Peters 113)
[60] (Burman 186)
[61] (Kors and Peters 308)
[62] (Kors and Peters 436-437)
