The Battle of Shiloh (April 6–7, 1862) almost ended Generals Grant and Sherman's careers. Instead, it is considered their first great victory, a testament to their tenacity and determination.
General PGT Beauregard planned a surprise advance and attack at Pittsburg Landing, on the west bank of the Tennessee River. On the first day, the Confederate Army routed the Union Army and only tenacious defense saved the day. On the second day, Union reinforcements and Rebel confusion led to a complete reversal of the fortunes of day 1.
Lloyd W Klein explains in part 1 in this series.
Battle of Shiloh by Thure de Thulstrup.
Planning and Strategy
Maj Gen Don Carlos Buell and the Army of the Ohio had taken Nashville in February 1862. He was able to claim the city with minimal effort in February 1862, and was promoted to major general shortly thereafter. In March 1862 General Henry Halleck ordered Buell to move south to rendezvous with General Ulysses S. Grant and the Army of the Tennessee at Pittsburg Landing, TN. Union leadership realized that its troops were too spread out, so it was decided to concentrate the troops. Recognizing this impending combining of forces, the Confederates were compelled to act.
After the losses at Forts Henry and Donelson and the abandonment of Nashville, the various Rebel armies converged on Corinth, Mississippi. This was a malarial-infested river town and a poor location for a retreating army. However, Corinth was the junction of 2 major railroads, the Memphis & Charleston RR and the Mobile & Ohio RR, and hence was a critical railroad crossroads, it was a convenient place to concentrate. Johnston’s command had only about 17,000 troops, so he joined his forces with those under General Polk. Because of Corinth’s centrality, he was able to gather 40-45,000 troops. This was probably sufficient to face Grant alone, who had about 48,000, but not combined with Buell., with an additional 18-20,000. Hence, a pre-emptive action to prevent their joining was a necessity.
Exactly how involved Albert Sidney Johnston was in planning the attack is controversial; it has been suggested that he was totally out of his depth and that Beauregard both planned and led the attack. The broad concept was to attack Grant before Buell joined him. Another error was that the rains had slowed travel from their base in Corinth. Had they arrived a day sooner General Buell might not have gotten there in time for day 2.
General Charles Ferguson Smith was at the time commander of the Union Army, as Halleck tried to dump Grant behind the scenes. Sherman went upstream with his division to raid the Memphis & Charleston RR, but on the way noted Pittsburg Landing and sent a recommendation to Smith that he occupy it. Smith sent Hurlbut, who occupied the landing. Upon Sherman's return from his unsuccessful raid, he landed there, decided the ground was good, and took charge of the forces around the landing and occupied Shiloh Church, on the west bank. Grant probably made an error in setting up camp on the side of the river closest to the known position of the Confederate Army. Grant’s back was to the river, and he could have been destroyed.
Sherman had set up camp around the Shiloh Church. Grant probably made an error in setting up camp on the side of the river closest to the known position of the Confederate Army. Grant’s back was to the river, and he could have been entirely destroyed. Pittsburg Landing is nine miles upriver (south) of Savannah, and it had a road that led to Corinth, Mississippi. About three miles inland from the landing was a log church named Shiloh (a Hebrew word meaning "place of peace”. It seemed like a good choice at the time because it was away from the river and on land that was well-drained and open. The area that would become the Shiloh battlefield was somewhat shaped like a triangle, with the sides formed by various creeks and the Tennessee River. The land was mostly wooded, with scattered cotton fields, peach orchards, and a few small structures.
The stealthiness of Beauregard's plan depended on speed. The march from Corinth is less than 20 miles and should have taken trained troops one day to approach and form for an assault. The rebel troops were untrained, to put it mildly, and the march took 3 days. Beauregard's biggest mistake in planning was the initial formation with each Corps spread across the front one behind the other. Commanding such a formation on a Corps level was impossible and not long after the jump off command responsibilities were separated in a more logical distribution of authority. Since the rebels were so untrained, Corps level identity wasn't strong. Beauregard underestimated the length of time to march from their camps to the area of Pittsburgh Landing. This resulted in many of their troops not having enough rations and they then stopped their initially successful assault in order to feast at the Union campsites. Another error was that the rains had slowed travel from their base in Corinth. Had they arrived a day sooner Buell might not have gotten there in time for day 2. In fact, the whole idea was to attack Grant before Buell joined him.
No one in the Union Army expected Beauregard to suddenly appear on their south flank. The divisions of Sherman and Prentiss were the least experienced, so when they bolted, it seemed to be a general retreat. Sherman had heard the reports of enemy soldiers in the area but he was concerned that if he entrenched, it would be viewed that his “insanity” regarding the war had returned so he ignored it. The lack of entrenchments was a distinct disadvantage for the Union troops and made the battle a "stand-up" fight for most of the day.
The camp alignment was designed for camping convenience and contributed to a more or less piecemeal resistance at first, but did help in a "defense-in-depth" resistance to the Confederate onslaught. Also having Sherman at the front right from the beginning turned out to be fortunate.
Every West Point trained officer (Halleck , Grant, Smith, Sherman, and McPherson) believed that Johnston and Beauregard would hold their troops behind the Corinth entrenchments and await the Union Army. Every day there were orders from Halleck in St Louis to Grant for him NOT to bring on a battle by any aggressive moves.
Order of Battle
Union Army
Major General Halleck served as the Commander of the Department of the West, with his headquarters located in St. Louis. A member of the Democratic Party, Halleck's intellectual approach contrasted sharply with that of his predecessor, Fremont. Although he was known for his cautious demeanor and did not fully endorse Grant's aggressive tactics, President Lincoln urged him to devise an offensive strategy. It is possible that Halleck harbored some distrust towards Grant, and perhaps even felt envious of the latter's achievements up to that point.
Major General Ulysses S. Grant held the position of commander for the District of West Tennessee and the XIII Corps, operating from the field. After being released from what could be described as house arrest at Fort Henry, he arrived in Savannah, Tennessee, on March 23, 1862. Grant assumed the role of Senior Officer Present (SOP) for the Tennessee River Expedition, which is often referred to as either the Army of the Tennessee or simply Grant's Army. He established his headquarters at the Cherry House, situated on a ridge overlooking Savannah. Following his victories at Fort Henry and Fort Donelson, Grant was promoted to Major General. However, Halleck had recently removed him from field command of the expedition after Grant left his district to meet Buell in Nashville, failed to report on his troop strength, and allegedly did not promptly halt looting at the captured forts. It was later revealed that Halleck's inquiries regarding Grant's forces had not reached him.
Halleck also mentioned concerns about rumors of Grant's potential return to alcohol consumption but ultimately reinstated him to field command. This decision may have been influenced by pressure from Lincoln and the War Department. When Halleck communicated the reinstatement to Grant, he framed it as an effort to rectify an injustice, omitting the fact that the initial injustice had originated with him. In response to Grant's letter expressing concern about possible adversaries between them, Halleck assured him, "You are mistaken. There is no enemy between you and me."
Major General Don Carlos Buell served as the Commander of the Department of the Ohio and the Army of the Ohio, although he held a junior rank compared to General Grant based on their respective dates of appointment. Following the capture of Fort Donelson, Buell's command was placed under the authority of General Halleck, who subsequently ordered him to advance from Nashville to Savannah. By April 1, 1862, Buell's leading division, under the command of Brigadier General Nelson, was still a week away from reaching Savannah. Buell, who had recently transitioned from being Halleck's equal to a subordinate, was recognized for his exceptional organizational skills, making Halleck's decision to assign him to this task a prudent one. In November 1861, Buell was dispatched to the Western Theater of the war in Kentucky, where he took command of the Army of the Ohio. He received directives from President Abraham Lincoln and General George B. McClellan to launch an invasion into eastern Tennessee. However, citing insufficient transportation for his large force of over 50,000 troops, Buell opted to advance on Nashville instead, capturing the city with relative ease in February 1862, which led to his promotion to major general shortly thereafter.
The next in seniority, Major General John McClernand, served as the commander of the 1st Division but had been assigned the role of garrison commander at Savannah. Following him in the chain of command was Major General C.F. Smith, who, while serving as a division commander, took on the responsibilities of the Tennessee River Expedition Commander during a period when Grant was occupied at Fort Henry and McClernand was relegated to garrison duties. Unfortunately, Smith became incapacitated due to a leg injury sustained while attempting to board a rowboat, which prevented him from participating in the Battle of Shiloh. He ultimately succumbed to an infection and dysentery a few weeks later, leading to Brigadier General William H.L. Wallace taking over his position.
Brigadier General William T. Sherman commanded a newly formed division. He was positioned as the forward leader of the Expedition at the Pittsburgh Landing campsite. Previously, Sherman led the 5th Division, but his pessimistic outlook on the war resulted in a breakdown that necessitated a brief leave of absence. After recovering, he established a strong partnership with Grant that would ultimately change the course of the war. At this moment, he was commander of a division under Grant.
The next most senior officer, Major General Lew Wallace, serves as a division commander and is stationed at Crumps Landing, located just upstream from Savannah. The other division commander under Grant's command was Benjamin Prentiss, who led the 6th division.
Confederate Army
Albert Sidney Johnston was a respected officer in the antebellum army, and his decision to join the Confederacy was seen as a significant advantage for the South. A West Point graduate, he gained recognition as a hero during the Mexican War. He rose to the rank of colonel in the distinguished 2nd US Cavalry, where Robert E. Lee served as his lieutenant colonel, and notable figures such as William Hardee and George Thomas held the rank of major. At the onset of the Civil War, Johnston was in command of the Department of the Pacific, which led President Davis to appoint him as a full general, placing him second in seniority, just behind Samuel Cooper. Subsequently, he was assigned to lead the western theater of operations. Following Zollicoffer’s defeat at Mill Springs, Davis appointed PGT Beauregard to serve under Johnston. However, the setbacks at Fort Henry, Fort Donelson, and Nashville raised concerns regarding Johnston's effectiveness. His tenure was marked by a mix of successes and failures; he took command in Tennessee in September 1861 after Polk's breach of Kentucky's neutrality and occupation of Columbus, Kentucky. From his base in Bowling Green, Kentucky, he projected a strong front that unsettled both Major General Robert Anderson and Brigadier General Sherman, who were in charge of the Department of the Ohio, while the current commander, Major General Buell, adopted a notably cautious approach. Nevertheless, Johnston's oversight of the river forts along the Cumberland and Tennessee rivers was lacking, allowing Grant's Tennessee River Expedition to capture both forts and Nashville.
PGT Beauregard stepped down from his position as commandant at West Point to take charge of Charleston Harbor, where he oversaw the bombardment of Fort Sumter and the events at the First Battle of Manassas.
The organizational structure of the Confederate army included the First Corps under Leonidas Polk, the Second Corps led by Braxton Bragg, the Third Corps commanded by William Hardee, and the Reserve Corps under John C. Breckinridge. This assembly essentially represented a reunion of the US 2nd Cavalry, orchestrated by Secretary of War Jefferson Davis, who was joined by the former Vice President of the United States. This alignment was likely intentional, as Davis had been preparing for the impending conflict long before it officially commenced.
The Battle – Day 1
Beauregard underestimated the time necessary to march from their camps outside of Corinth to the area of Pittsburgh Landing. This resulted in many of their troops not having enough rations. One consequence was that after their initially successful assault, the Confederate forces halted to feast at the Union campsites.
Surprise Attack
Strategically, the rebel assault was definitely a surprise, but tactically it was most assuredly NOT a surprise. Like calling Gettysburg a meeting engagement, it depends on exactly what we mean by the word “surprise”. There was no prepared defensive line and no entrenchments, and no one expected an attack or a battle in that location. Only a few pickets were in place. So from a preparedness perspective, it was a surprise. But there had been a minor skirmish on April 4th. There were myriad reports of Confederates in the area.
At midnight April 5, Colonel Peabody ordered Major James E. Powell to take three companies of the 25th Missouri Infantry Regiment, and two companies of the 12th Michigan Infantry Regiment, on a reconnaissance to Seay Field. Around 5 am, Confederate pickets fired at Powell’s men. When Powell advanced into Fraley’s Field, he ran into Major Hardcastle’s 3rd Mississippi Battalion. When General Johnston heard the sounds of battle, he gave Beauregard a fateful order. Meanwhile, Powell sent back word that he had run into a Confederate force of several thousand. When Prentiss heard this report, he had an odd response. Sherman also had a weird response until an event occurred he could not ignore.
Colonel Everett Peabody had ordered a reconnaissance by 3 companies at midnight on April 5 and a sighting was made. That was when the battle began. Colonel Everett Peabody of the 25th Missouri was a new brigade commander in General Prentiss' new division and were the most southerly camped troops near the Shiloh branch Creek. Because of many days of encountering rebels in the woods and on the roads by pickets and cavalry, Colonel Peabody was very nervous and worried on the night of April 5 into the early morning of April 6. About 1:00 am Peabody sent out Major James Powell of the 25th with a small patrol that soon returned with word he had encountered Confederate pickets very close. Peabody organized a larger patrol and they went out at 3:00am. Powell found Hindman's Confederate division advancing and attacked. One of the ironies of Shiloh was that this large battle began with an attack by Union soldiers. Eventually Powell figured the rebels were too strong and began a fighting withdrawal back to the Union camps. Prentiss at first was outraged that Peabody had provoked an attack unordered, But then realized what it meant. And Peabody basically saved the Union army by giving them time to prepare. Sherman didn’t believe it until he went forward to see for himself and was wounded slightly while an aide was killed.
At 5:30 am, Johnston ordered a general attack but it took at least 2 hours to organize and even then the alignment was off axis. Hardee and Bragg began the assault with a 3 mile wide line. At 7:30 am, the corps of Polk and Breckinridge moved forward on the flanks, extending the line and causing intermixing of commands. In essence the attack was one very long frontal attack. The idea was to drive the Union camps back to Owl Creek, away from the river (NOT into it, which is a common misconception), which should have meant an attack primarily on the Union left.
At dawn, Confederate forces under General Albert Sidney Johnston and General P.G.T. Beauregard launched a surprise attack on Union troops encamped near Pittsburg Landing in southwestern Tennessee. Johnston aimed to defeat the Union army before reinforcements under General Don Carlos Buell could arrive.
The firing became almost continuous and swelled so Peabody, Sherman, Prentiss, and their men knew something big was happening, but Prentiss and Sherman needed a little more persuading.
Grant maintained in his Memoirs that it was not a surprise attack. The northern newspapers exaggerated the nature of the surprise at the time; indeed the Union did not entrench but Sherman had been forewarned and elements of the Union army found the southern lines quite soon. Halleck would help Grant cover for whatever surprise it was, in large part because it was a victory in the end. Of course, this view was beneficial to Grant, and also to Halleck at the time, to keep themselves from being embarrassed, or even relieved of command. It is still controversial whether or not Union soldiers were really bayoneted in their tents and shot in their underwear as was reported in the papers, but most modern accounts say that was an exaggeration.
Grant was having breakfast in Savannah. When he heard the sounds of battle, he ordered General Nelson forward, took his steamboat to Crump’s Landing where he ordered Lew Wallace to prepare to move. then got to Pittsburg Landing at about 9am. He was on crutches, as he had fallen from his horse recently.
The Union forces were caught off guard, with many soldiers still in their tents or eating breakfast when the attack began. The Confederate assault overwhelmed the Union front lines, pushing them back toward the Tennessee River.
The Union army, spread across multiple camps, was unprepared for the intensity of the attack. Many units were quickly overrun, and disorganized Union troops retreated in panic.
The nature of the surprise was exaggerated by the northern newspapers at the time; the Union did not entrench, but General Sherman had been forewarned and elements of the Union army found the southern lines quite soon after their arrival. Despite being routed early, Sherman showed tenacity and skill despite adversity on the first day, proving to himself and to others that he had the emotional and cognitive skills necessary to lead an army.
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Further Reading:
· Daniel, Larry J. (1997). Shiloh: The Battle That Changed the Civil War. New York City: Simon & Schuster.
· James M McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom. Oxford University Press, 1988.
· Shelby Foote, The Civil War: A Narrative. Volumes 1-3. Random House, 1963.
· Ulysses S Grant, The Autobiography of General Ulysses S Grant: Memoirs of the Civil War. Accessed at: https://www.gutenberg.org/files/4367/4367-h/4367-h.htm
· William T Sherman, Memoirs of General William T Sherman. Accessed at: https://www.gutenberg.org/files/4361/4361-h/4361-h.htm
· https://www.battlefields.org/learn/civil-war/battles/shiloh
· http://www.npshistory.com/publications/civil_war_series/22/sec11.htm
· https://www.historynet.com/battle-of-shiloh-the-devils-own-day/
· https://www.historynet.com/battle-of-shiloh/
· https://www.nps.gov/articles/000/was-general-grant-surprised-by-the-confederate-attack-at-shiloh.htm
· https://www.battlefields.org/learn/articles/battle-shiloh-shattering-myths
