Independence in Colombia: The Crossing Paths of Francisco de Miranda and Simon Bolivar

By the latter half of the 17th century, the rule of Spain in the New World was reaching 200 years. Times were changing, both in the New World and in Europe, and the leaders of Spain knew it. Their problem was what to do about it. Spain had never had a coherent policy in its imperial rule. Since 1492, Spain was seemingly constantly at war, with an endless series of crises thrown into the mix. Solutions had to be found for the here and now, the future would take care of itself.

Erick Redington continues his look at the independence of Spanish America by looking at Francisco de Miranda and Simon Bolivar. He looks at how they both wanted independence from Spain, but came from different generations - one an elder statesman, the other an idealist revolutionary

If you missed them, Erick’s article on the four viceroyalties is here, Francisco de Miranda’s early life is here, his travels in Europe and the US is here, and his later years is here. Then, you can read about the Abdications of Bayonne here, the start of the Mexican War of Independence here, how Hidalgo continued the war here, the impact of José Morelos here, and the changes of the 1810s here, and Mexico’s sudden independence here, and Colombia’s Revolt of the Comuneros here.

Francisco de Miranda by Martin Tovar y Tovar.

Miranda the Gadfly

Unlike the other pre-Bayonne viceroyalties, Gran Colombia had a small independentist movement. This can be ascribed to the workings of one man: Francisco de Miranda. Although a very thorough series about his life can be found here, an abbreviated version is in order.

Miranda was born in Caracas in 1750 to parents who did not quite fit into the city’s socioeconomic structure. On a racial and class basis, the Mirandas did not have a comfortable life due to persecution by the city’s Basque, old-money elites. This caused a great deal of resentment for Miranda. His father had been forced to sacrifice his military position and a significant part of his wealth refuting accusations of “racial impurity”.

Resentment against the colonial structure that enabled the Byzantine rules of New Granada made the decision to leave the colony easy for Miranda. After serving in the Spanish army in North Africa fighting the Moors and in the Caribbean and North America during the America Revolution, he was caught up in some illegal business deals, and potential spying, and became an object of suspicion for the Spanish colonial authorities who ordered his arrest. Miranda fled first to the United States and then to Europe.

While in Europe, Miranda met many of the most prominent people of the time, from William Pitt the Younger to Catherine the Great. When the French Revolution broke out, Miranda, a student of the Enlightenment, enthusiastically joined the French army and was made a general. As the French Revolution ate its own, Miranda got swept up in the persecution and was briefly put in prison, though he was later released and fled to Britain.

With his previous contacts and notoriety as a friend of seemingly every prominent person in Europe at the time, Miranda was able to leverage his contacts to fulfill his dream of liberating his homeland from the oppression of Spain. At the time, Spain was allied to Revolutionary France, and Miranda very pointedly told the British government that if they supported him with money, ships, and men, he could lead a revolutionary movement against Spain, deprive a British enemy of their most lucrative colonies by igniting a hemispheric revolutionary movement, and open the area to increased British commerce. Seemingly constantly, Miranda would come up with new plans and memoranda and send them off to Prime Minister Pitt looking for more of everything for his revolutionary projects. Eventually, he would tire of waiting on the British and returned to the United States to reignite his contacts there.

In 1806, Miranda, with alleged support from the administration of Thomas Jefferson, organized several ships and a few hundred volunteers and attempted an invasion of New Granada, landing at Coro. A British ship and some Royal Marines helped in the attack. It was a total catastrophe. Ashore for not even two weeks, Miranda would retreat back to the safety of his ships when Spanish troops arrived, and the expedition broke up.

Back in Britain, Miranda, having shown himself to be a man of action, began to receive real support from the British government. After a failed invasion of the Viceroy of Rio de la Plata that was defeated mostly by local forces, the British realized they needed the support of the local populace. Here is where the British thought Miranda would be useful. Still with contacts in New Granada, Miranda could be used to set the stage for local support for a British invasion of the colony. Being unable to directly strike the Napoleonic juggernaut, the British could strike at the soft underbelly of the Napoleonic system, the Spanish Empire.

Chaos of Bayonne

The stage had been set. A large British army under the command of General Arthur Wellesley was all ready to go. Miranda would go as well to lead his people. Then, the Abdications of Bayonne happened. Spain was no longer a British enemy. With now-King Ferdinand a prisoner of the French, the new revolutionary Junta that claimed to be leading Spain in his name was an ally. Additionally, that army now needed to be used in Iberia, not all the way in South America.

As in the other viceroyalties, the Abdications of Bayonne created chaos. Few wanted to accept the new King José I of Spain (Joseph Bonaparte). The Junta in Spain claimed authority over the colonies, but as the colonists saw it, by what right? If the Spanish people could rise up against the usurper, they could rise up as well to defend their rights.

By 1810, Juntas began forming in the colonies. The Supreme Junta of Caracas, like the Junta of Seville, declared itself the supreme government of all of the Captaincy-General of Venezuela. What was interesting was that the Junta only claimed to represent Venezuela, just one constituent part of the whole of New Granada. Officially the Junta was simply a sort of regency for the captive King Ferdinand. It was on this basis that the Junta requested help from the British. See, they were not rebelling against Britain’s ally Spain, they were fighting for King Ferdinand, and the British should help them succeed. It was just obvious. The diplomatic mission sent over to Britain by the Junta toed this line until a young hothead in the delegation, a man named Simón Bolívar, ranted to the British diplomats about how Venezuela should be free and independent.

Bolívar Meets Miranda

The meeting between Bolívar and Miranda would be a crossroads in both of their lives. Here was Miranda, the elder statesman. French revolutionary, Spanish-American revolutionary, world traveler, and supposed lover of Catherine the Great. Bolívar was a young idealist. The first “great man” he worshipped was Napoleon, but Bonaparte had betrayed his ideals, in Bolívar’s mind, when he crowned himself. Now, here was Miranda, the man who had been fighting to make America free since almost before Bolívar was born.

Bolívar’s Early Life

Like Miranda, Bolívar was from Caracas, having been born there in 1783. Unlike Miranda, Bolívar’s family was descended from the group of Basques that dominated the high society of Caracas. Although he was born into one of the wealthiest families in the Americas, tragedy struck early in Bolívar’s life. His father died when he was only 3 years old, and he would go on to be raised by relatives away from his siblings. He would be sent to live with his uncle, Carlos Palacios y Blanco, whom Bolívar would despise since he was convinced that the man was only after the family’s inheritance.

Carlos Palacios knew he had to at least do the bare minimum to show he was caring for his nephew, so he sent him to school. From there, he would meet one of the formative people in his life, Simón Rodriguez. Rodriguez was a liberal who believed in independence for Venezuela. He would be considered one of the earliest influences on Bolívar’s political upbringing.

First Taste of Revolution

Eventually, Bolívar would run away from his uncle’s care and fled to live with his sister and her husband. Not particularly wanting the very defiant and unruly boy hanging around too much, his sister arranged for Bolívar to move in with Simón Rodriguez to further his education. Rodriguez would teach the boy the values of the Enlightenment that we so much in vogue at the time. Bolívar, being a naturally defiant child, eagerly lapped up the philosophies that taught questioning established authorities and the vaguely libertarian outlook that early Enlightenment philosophers held.

Bolívar’s political education would end prematurely in 1797. Rodriguez was caught up in what was called the Gual and España conspiracy, named after two of the leaders. This conspiracy sought to throw off, what they saw, as the shackles then in place in Venezuela. Although the exact details of the conspiracy are shrouded by the mists of time and unclear, what is clear is that the basis for this movement was a checklist of Enlightenment philosophies: free trade and the elimination of tariffs and burdensome taxes, elimination of the tribute that Indians were required to pay, the immediate and total abolition of slavery, and complete racial equality. Independence for Venezuela was not an explicit goal; neither was republicanism. It was also not explicitly anti-Spanish, as many later rebellions would be. The conspirators believed that the interests of all people in Venezuela were in alignment and that no Venezuelan was an enemy.

While the conspiracy was broken up with ease by the colonial authorities, it did show that even at this early time, Venezuela was a hotbed of dissent. Simón Rodriguez would be exiled to Europe and Bolívar’s formal education in Venezuela was at an end. After a brief stint in the colonial militia, he would be sent by Carlos Palacios to Madrid to continue school. While in Madrid, Bolívar’s education would be broadened to create a more well-rounded education.

In the Belly of the Beast

His time in Madrid would be tumultuous. He stayed with his uncle, Esteban Palacios, who recognized almost right away that, although Bolívar came from an aristocratic family of means, his education was terrible. His uncle set about remaking his young ward. Bolívar was taught not just better grammar and spelling, but also how to dress, speak, and act as a member of his class and station. Part of this effort was getting Bolívar recognized at court. One of Esteban Palacios’ acquaintances in Madrid was a young man of the royal guard named Manuel Mallo.

The Spanish royal court at the turn of the 19th century was a sad parody of royalty. The Queen of Spain, Maria Luisa was the power in the country. It would be generous to call King Carlos IV dim. He was a man completely out of his depth ruling a country and had no discernable self-awareness. Maria Luisa was a woman with no beauty or charm, but she was strong-willed and pursued what she wanted. Two things she valued most of all were power and young, handsome men. For a young man with ambition and good looks, an appointment to the royal guard was also a ticket to the queen’s bedchamber and, subsequently, wealth and power. By this point in the story, she had already convinced her husband to elevate Manuel Godoy from said bedchamber to the prime ministership of the empire. Carlos was probably the only person in the court who was unaware of where Godoy’s rapid rise came from. While Bolívar was in Madrid, the queen cast her eye on Manuel Mallo. He was showered with wealth and power, with the king none the wiser. This relationship was Bolívar’s entry to the court.

Although Bolívar would be expelled from the court for a time for wearing diamonds to a reception, which was forbidden without express permission, his time at court was formative. He became acquainted with the heir to the Spanish throne, Prince Ferdinand, the future Ferdinand VII. There was a story that one day, Bolívar went to the royal palace to visit Ferdinand and they decided to play a game of badminton together. During the game, the shuttlecock came down and hit Ferdinand on the head. As everyone around laughed at the situation, Ferdinand became so embarrassed and angry that he refused to continue to play. Only by his mother shaming him, and her demand that Ferdinand be hospitable, was Ferdinand convinced to continue.

Eventually, Manuel Mallo fell out of the queen’s favor. When he was arrested, Esteban Palacios decided that this would be a good time to take Bolívar out of Madrid and away from court. One can only imagine how much damage close familiarity with the court in Madrid did to Bolívar’s loyalty to the crown. Indeed, Bolívar got a good look at how the Spanish court ran at this time, and it would color his views on both monarchies and the mother country.

A Match Made in Heaven

One thing Bolívar left in Madrid was love. He had met María Teresa Rodríguez del Toro during his time in the capital. She was also from New Granada, and she was a cousin to one of Bolívar’s childhood friends. They had become close during this time, but Bolívar’s abrupt exit from Madrid did not dampen his love for her. When he was able to return In April 1802, Bolívar immediately applied for a marriage license and he and María were married.

With his new bride in tow, and feeling his education complete, Bolívar decided to go back to New Granada. When the new, happy couple arrived, he reconnected with all of his old friends and acquaintances in Caracas. A grand future awaited the couple, splitting time between Bolívar’s estate at San Mateo growing indigo and cacao, and the city of Caracas. For Bolívar, who had grown up being passed around amongst family members who cared more for the inheritance he had than him as a human being, he felt reborn with the sanctity that a marriage of true love can bring. A comfortable life as a wealthy aristocrat awaited the Bolívars.

The Turning Point

Unfortunately, María contracted yellow fever (most likely) soon after arriving in New Granada. After only eight months of marriage, María passed away on January 22, 1803. She was only 21 years old.

For Bolívar, this was devastating. He had finally given his heart to another person after the chaos of his childhood, and now the love of his life was gone in the blink of an eye. Some close to him feared that he might even take his own life. His brother believed that Bolívar was going to go mad from anger and grief. Although he would reach the other side of the dark night, Bolívar emerged a changed man. It was the death of María that would change the trajectory of Bolívar’s life. Prior to her death, he would have been perfectly happy and contented to continue on with the empty-headed life of a colonial aristocrat, achieving prosperity and little more. Now, the nervous energy needed an outlet somewhere. It was this event that placed him on the road to being the Bolívar the Liberator.

What do you think of the Revolt of the Comuneros? Let us know below.

Now, read about Francisco Solano Lopez, the Paraguayan president who brought his country to military catastrophe in the War of the Triple Alliance here.

Spain in the New World: Francisco de Miranda’s Travels and Independence Leader

By the latter half of the 17th century, the rule of Spain in the New World was reaching 200 years. Times were changing, both in the New World and in Europe, and the leaders of Spain knew it. Their problem was what to do about it. Spain had never had a coherent policy in its imperial rule. Since 1492, Spain was seemingly constantly at war, with an endless series of crises thrown into the mix. Solutions had to be found for the here and now, the future would take care of itself.

Erick Redington continues his look at the independence of Spanish America by looking at Venezuelan military leader and revolutionary Francisco de Miranda. Here he looks at Francisco de Miranda’s further travels and how he came to declare independence in one part of South America.

If you missed them, Erick’s article on the four viceroyalties is here, Francisco de Miranda’s early life is here, and his travels in Europe and the US is here.

A painting of General Francisco de Miranda by Martín Tovar y Tovar

Francisco de Miranda, now back in Britain, was determined to carry out the mission he had given himself so many years ago: leading the movement for the independence of Spanish America. This can be seen in his first letter to Prime Minister William Pitt. Miranda addresses himself to Pitt as the “Principal Agent of the Spanish American Colonies, commissioned to treat with the Ministers of His Britannic Majesty.” He had been accredited by no government. What he did understand, however, was the time and the societal structure he lived in. He knew he had to “sound important.” Walk the walk, so to speak. He was showing himself as an important man, the leader of a people, addressing other world leaders. When he was able to meet with Pitt and was asked for his credentials, Miranda would hand Pitt the Act of Paris.

Just as the last time he was in Britain, he knew the British government was the key to financial and military support for his aims. With Britain and Spain at war again, Pitt and his ministry were only too happy to support Miranda, but again, they would only do so on their own terms. Miranda, aware of the duplicitous nature of international politics, had been courting the Americans as well. For all the letters he sent to Pitt outlining plans for expeditions to South America, he was also sending letters to his old friends in the United States. Thomas Jefferson was elected President in 1800, and Jefferson and his new Secretary of State James Madison were counted by Miranda as friends. Miranda knew both men were interested in spreading the “benefits of republican government.” Using the known expansionist designs of the Americans as a counterbalance to the power of Great Britain would help Miranda in his cause. He tried to force on the British a sense of urgency. The British better help him, and by extension keep their influence over him, or else the Americans would help him, and they would have influence.

This would not be enough to force the British into helping him. Miranda knew he would have to pressure the British government into helping him. To do this, he chose to go over the heads of the government, and appeal directly to the British people. The hope was to create overwhelming support for Spanish American independence, that the ministry would be forced to act through public pressure.

Miranda’s Widening Net

One of the most important publications that helped Miranda’s cause was not written by Miranda himself. Also in London at the time was Juan Pablo Viscardo y Guzmán. Viscardo was a Jesuit from Peru who was expelled from Spanish America on royal orders dissolving the Jesuit order in Spanish territory. While in exile, Viscardo became a staunch supporter of South American independence. He would publish the “Open Letter to the American Spaniards.” This publication, seen by many at the time, and by later historians, as a South American Declaration of Independence or Declaration of the Rights of Man, was more akin to a version of Common Sense by Thomas Paine. It laid out all the legal and emotional reasons why Spanish America should be independent.

When Viscardo died in 1798, his papers were given to Miranda, who could recognize the rhetorical power of Viscardo’s arguments. Since Viscardo was no longer around to challenge Miranda, his legacy could easily be adopted and coopted into Miranda’s own operation. This, and other writings by Miranda, would be published in the numerous newspapers and pamphlets that dotted London at the time.

It is also at this time that Miranda would begin to cultivate relationships with many younger firebrands who lived in London at the time. The first was a young man, the illegitimate son of the Viceroy of Peru, Bernardo Riquelme. Later as Bernardo O’Higgins, he would help lead the liberation of Chile, and contribute to the liberation of Peru. O’Higgins, meeting Miranda in his late teens, was extremely impressionable and searching for a father figure to teach him. Miranda filled this role splendidly. The same impetuosity displayed so many times by Miranda would characterize the life and governance of O’Higgins. This secondary role that Miranda took upon himself, that of a father figure and mentor to young revolutionaries would have far-reaching impacts on the course of revolutions throughout South America.

Years would pass before Miranda would have success in his relations with the British government. It was only in 1805 that the British government began seriously studying the many plans Miranda had presented for military action. When this grand study was conducted, it concluded that the best way to foment an uprising in South America was to…attack Buenos Aires. Miranda was devastated. Buenos Aires was not what he considered a ripe ground for liberation. He wanted to go back to his homeland and initiate an uprising there. Just like last time, Miranda was so fed up with the British government, that he decided to leave. Unlike last time though, he would go back to the New World. He would go to the United States.

The Leander Expedition

While in the United States, all the contacts Miranda had made would pay off for him. Whereas in Britain, he had faced roadblocks and frustrations, in the US his friends would outdo each other in helping him. Jefferson and Madison, the President and Secretary of State respectively, would provide him access and (unofficially, of course) weapons made in US armories. He was able to recruit members for his planned expedition without any legal hindrance, regardless of US neutrality laws.

On February 2, 1806, Miranda and his motley crew of about 180 men set sail from New York aboard the Leander (named for Miranda’s young son), the small ship that would give the expedition its name. After a short layover in Haiti, supported there by the revolutionary government of Jean-Jacques Dessalines, Miranda and crew would sail for their target, Venezuela. During the journey, the crew was presented with uniforms for the new army that they were now members of. Miranda unfurled the tricolor that would eventually be the basis for the flags of three nations. After another stop in Aruba for rest and resupply, Miranda was joined by two other ships, the Bee and the Bacchus.

For Miranda, this was the moment his life had been leading up to. He had men under arms following him. Bright, velvet uniforms adorned those fighting in the glorious cause of freedom from colonial tyranny. Proclamations had been written and printed, which once distributed, would drive the people into a revolutionary frenzy. Everything was in place for the victory that Miranda believed was his destiny.

It began to fall apart almost at once. A landing was attempted at the small town of Ocumare on April 27. The Spanish were ready to oppose them with two ships. Miranda would order his ship, Leander, to sail away. The Bee, however, did not get the message and was captured, left to its fate while Miranda retreated.

If at first you don’t succeed…

Arriving back in Aruba, Miranda would receive help from the British. The Royal Navy officers in the area were sympathetic to his cause. With this help, he was finally able, on August 3, to land on Venezuelan soil, at La Vela de Coro, the site of the old colony of Neu-Augsburg. Upon occupying Coro, he found the city almost deserted. The people had been told to evacuate by colonial authorities to escape the barbarities Miranda would visit upon them. For his part, Miranda had ordered persons and property respected. It did not matter, there was no mass uprising in the revolution’s favor.

Within a few days, Spanish forces reacted and began to approach Coro. The hero was not about to let himself be captured by the enemy, so he ordered his men to retreat to the coast. Miranda threatened to leave behind the wounded if it slowed the retreat. One man who voiced complaints was threatened with execution at Miranda’s hand. Once aboard the ship, Miranda would order his expedition to head back to Aruba. The entire invasion lasted eleven days. It was a complete failure. Adding insult to injury, one of the local commanders of Spanish forces was Juan Manuel Cagigal, Miranda’s old friend from 30 years before who now called him a fanatic.

Back to Britain, Again

From Aruba, Miranda would find his way back to Britain. As soon as he arrived, he announced his presence to the government and began planning a new expedition. The new Prime Minister, the Duke of Portland, was more open than Pitt had been to Miranda’s advances. Portland viewed the war against France as the world war that it was and wanted to strike at Spain’s soft underbelly in the Americas. In furtherance to this end, a large expedition was assembled which would strike at Spanish America. Arthur Wellesley, the future Duke of Wellington, would command. Fate, as it always seemed to with Miranda, intervened. Napoleon, with the help of Spain, had forced the Portuguese royal family to flee Iberia and take up residence in Brazil, the largest colony of Portugal. Sensing an opportunity, the British diverted the army meant for South America to Portugal to begin the famous Peninsular Campaign.

Despondent, Miranda could not believe the opportunity that had been lost. A major army under competent command was lost to him and his cause. Shortly, however, fate would intervene again. Napoleon had invaded his own ally, Spain.

Napoleon Provides the Opportunity of a Lifetime

Napoleon had begun to worry about his Spanish ally. Napoleon was willing to accept the horrifically incompetent administration of the Spanish government led by the Queen’s lover Manuel de Godoy, one of the most corrupt men in the annals of history. He was also willing to accept the cartoonishly stupid King Carlos IV and his only slightly less stupid son, Ferdinand. Napoleon understood that the corrupt and stupid can be controlled, especially by someone as brilliant as himself. The problem was the Spanish people were not willing to continue to submit. After several attempts by Ferdinand, and Ferdinand-aligned elements of the Spanish government, to overthrow Godoy and Carlos, Napoleon intervened and tricked both Carlos and Ferdinand to abdicate their claims to the Spanish throne. Napoleon then named his brother Joseph King José I. All over Spain, uprisings began resisting the French occupation of the country. These uprisings and their leadership committees, called Juntas, pledged their loyalty to Ferdinand, now called Ferdinand VII.

Overnight, these events changed the entire dynamic for Miranda. His primary patron had always been Great Britain. He had always looked primarily to Britain for support. Now, Britain and Spain were allies. Instead of trying to undermine Spanish rule in America, now the British wanted to reinforce it. Within a year, Juntas began springing up in Spanish America, officially pledged to the cause of Ferdinand VII.

These Juntas were led by local criollos who occupied second place in the Spanish colonial hierarchy. The taste of power and local self-rule would not be lost by these men. These Juntas were pledged to Ferdinand VII, yes, but not necessarily to Spain itself, a hair-splitting distinction, but a distinction, nonetheless. Here were the mass independence movements that Miranda had been waiting his whole life for. The movements that he felt it his destiny to lead.

Miranda Goes Home

In 1810, the Supreme Junta of Caracas, exerting power supposedly over the whole of Venezuela, removed the colony’s Spanish government. The Junta claimed that it was simply exercising authority on behalf of Ferdinand until he could return to the throne. It was on this basis that a delegation was sent from the Junta to Britain to garner support. This delegation had as one of its members a certain Simón Bolívar. A young hot-headed Venezuelan, Bolívar was awed by Miranda and his reputation. As he was always keen on mentoring young revolutionaries, Miranda took a liking to this young man. When the delegation attempted to persuade Miranda to return to his homeland, it did not take much convincing. What the delegation did not tell Miranda was that their instructions specifically forbade them from bringing him back with them when they returned. It did not matter. Miranda was going home.

The First Venezuelan Congress assembled on March 2, 1811. Declaring itself the legitimate government of Venezuela, it began setting the stage to take complete control. On July 5, 1811, Congress would declare Venezuela independent of Spain. It would also establish the new country as a republic, styled the American Confederation of Venezuela. A constitution was written, allegedly based upon the principles of liberty and reason. It was unveiled on July 14, Bastille Day.

Back in Command

Miranda was given the task of suppressing royalists around Valencia. Given his military experience, this was a natural assignment. It was not the one that Miranda wanted. Although he was able to easily bring these loyalists to heel, Miranda did not want to be overly brutal. He saw these people as countrymen and wanted to reconcile them with the new republic. When he returned to Caracas after his successful campaign, he received a hero’s welcome. The people crowded him on the streets and cheered his name. This further fueled the jealousy felt by members of the Republic’s government. They were afraid that Miranda and his friends, whom they saw as Jacobins and a Masonic conspiracy, of plotting to overthrow the Republic and install Miranda as a dictator. These fears were certainly not alleviated by Miranda’s letters written to the government during his campaign. Miranda did not believe in the federalist bent of the new republic. He was a centralist and made thinly veiled references about how the men with the most experience should be the ones called to ultimate authority.

During these events, the Spanish were not idle. Despite the massive war and insurrection occurring in Spain, the Supreme Junta of Spain was already making plans to re-exert control over Venezuela. With the covert support of the British, the Spanish government was already accumulating troops in Puerto Rico to attempt a reconquest. A political campaign stressing the racial, cultural, and religious ties to Spain was intensified. As Spain gained sympathizers, the government of the Republic became more radical in its laws and pronouncements. One pronouncement granted freedom to any slave who enlisted in the Republic’s army for a term of ten years. This caused many landowners who were already skeptical of the Republic to openly support Spain. On March 26, 1812, a massive earthquake hit Venezuela and caused widespread death and destruction, much of which occurred in areas that had large numbers of supporters of the Republic. It seemed to many people that God himself was turning against the revolution.

Generalissimo Miranda

Only a week after the earthquake, on April 3rd, Miranda was named supreme commander of the army and head of the Republic with dictatorial powers, with the title of Generalissimo of the Confederation of Venezuela. This seeming height of his career would be fraught with challenges, but Miranda, ever confident, believed in his ability to handle them.

The Spanish chose this moment to attack. They besieged the fortress of San Felipe near Puerto Cabello. The commander was his old mentee Bolívar. When the fortress fell, things fell apart rapidly. The Spanish advanced quickly on Caracas. With no military force of consequence between the capital and the battle-hardened Spanish Army, Miranda knew the cause was hopeless. He sent commissioners to discuss surrender terms with the Spanish commander, Domingo Monteverde. Miranda chose to not confide the surrender terms to others in the Venezuelan government. This led to suspicions about his motives. On August 3rd, the Spanish Army took Caracas. What would later be called the First Republic of Venezuela was gone, snuffed out in the blink of an eye.

Betrayal and Arrest

For Miranda, there were only thoughts of exile, yet again. As he was preparing to sail away, other Venezuelan leaders saw this man, supposedly their leader, leaving them. Some believed he was taking the nation’s treasury with him, although the evidence is contradictory. Bolívar and a group of army officers arrested Miranda before he could leave the country. He was handed over to the Spanish. Although the terms of Miranda’s surrender of the country promised him safe passage out, Monteverde gleefully took custody of the prisoner.

Miranda was placed into a cell and secured to the wall by chains. He would be held in Venezuela until transferred to Spain, where he would be held in the La Carraca prison in Cádiz. Charged with treason against the crown, Miranda waited to be tried and executed. But this would not come. Miranda would constantly petition King Ferdinand to release not only him, but his country from bondage. He asked to be sent to exile in Russia or the United States.

Being held in prison is harmful to your health in the best of times. To be held in a 19th century dungeon as a political prisoner was even worse. Miranda was already elderly for the time and suffered from ulcers and rheumatism. On March 25, 1816, he suffered a stroke leading to seizures. Once he recovered, he caught typhus. Only with foreign pressure did Miranda’s Spanish jailers remove his leg irons as a humanitarian gesture. He would linger on for a few months of agony until he died on July 14, 1816, the anniversary of Bastille Day.

Francisco de Miranda was many things. Visionary, a man of letters, a man of the world, he embodied the traits of the ideal man of reason envisioned by the thinkers of the enlightenment. He was also vain, a megalomaniacal, and in the end, overly concerned about his own importance and self-preservation. Like Moses, he would never reach the promised land. Undoubtedly, like Moses, he was one of the primary reasons why his people reached that promised land. The Forerunner, the Precursor, the Moses of South American freedom. All these titles describe Francisco de Miranda.

What do you think of Francisco de Miranda? Let us know below.

Now, read about Francisco Solano Lopez, the Paraguayan president who brought his country to military catastrophe in the War of the Triple Alliance here.

Spain in the New World: Francisco de Miranda’s Travels in America and Europe

By the latter half of the 17th century, the rule of Spain in the New World was reaching 200 years. Times were changing, both in the New World and in Europe, and the leaders of Spain knew it. Their problem was what to do about it. Spain had never had a coherent policy in its imperial rule. Since 1492, Spain was seemingly constantly at war, with an endless series of crises thrown into the mix. Solutions had to be found for the here and now, the future would take care of itself.

Erick Redington continues his look at the independence of Spanish America by looking at Venezuelan military leader and revolutionary Francisco de Miranda. Here he looks at Francisco de Miranda’s travels across America and Europe, including his time in revolutionary France.

If you missed them, Erick’s article on the four viceroyalties is here, and Francisco de Miranda’s early life is here.

A painting of a young Francisco de Miranda. By Georges Rouget.

Having played a small part in the triumph of the American colonies in their revolution, Miranda wanted to see the society that the Americans were building. It was a natural choice for him. He already seemed to be developing his ideas for the independence of the Western Hemisphere from Europe. A society built upon liberal, enlightenment principles fit into his worldview. Being a highly literate man, Miranda would keep a diary during his travels. This record of his impressions and observations of the early United States is invaluable to any researcher and is one of Miranda’s best historical legacies.

On June 10, 1783, Miranda landed at New Berne, North Carolina. He would travel throughout the United States, seeking to meet not only the biggest players in the revolutionary saga but also the common folk as well. He was impressed that the lower-class whites and the wealthy would mix at common events (he did not mention what the views of the slaves at the events were). From the south, Miranda would journey north to visit the American capital Philadelphia. While in the city, he would insist on staying at the Indian Queen Inn, the same inn where Jefferson supposedly wrote the Declaration of Independence.

Armed with letters of introduction from those he met in the south, Miranda would put his natural charm and wit to work to ingratiate himself into Philadelphia high society. Since word of his status with the Spanish government had not caught up with him yet, he was wined and dined by members of the American government as well as foreign ambassadors and prominent citizens looking for Spanish contacts. Encountering George Washington, Miranda would say that he could not make a firm judgment on the man, due to his “taciturn” disposition. Lafayette, Miranda would find to be overrated. Leaving Philadelphia, Miranda would go to New York and meet two people who would influence his later life: Thomas Paine and Alexander Hamilton. Paine will become important later. Hamilton and Miranda were very much alike. Both men were bursting with energy and ideas. Both men believed that they had a destiny to lead their respective peoples. Both were highly intelligent and literate. Until Hamilton’s death, Miranda would continue to think of Hamilton as a friend.

After touring upstate New York and New England, Miranda’s past was beginning to catch up to him. Word from Spain had begun to filter into the United States. Instead of being an innocent victim of slander that Miranda had passed himself off as, he was in fact a deserter who was sentenced to lose his commission, pay a fine, and face exile. Miranda could no longer pass himself off as a lieutenant colonel of the Spanish Army. This change of status proved to be liberating in a way. When Miranda arrived in Boston, he used his letters of introduction to meet General Henry Knox, the future first Secretary of War under the Constitution. Miranda, Knox, Samuel Adams, and other men of the Boston merchant community would become intimate friends and form a discussion group. Over brandy, Miranda would spellbind these men with his ideas for the liberation of South America from the Spanish. Once Miranda saw all he thought he could see, as well as met all who were worth meeting, it was time to leave. While Miranda wanted to see the great experiment in action, he knew that at the present time, the United States was utterly incapable of furthering his plans for an independent South America. For this, he had to go to Europe.

Miranda Tours Europe

The Grand Tour was a trip around Europe that many upper-class people took as something like a right of passage after their schooling had been completed. It gave the young person a sense of worldliness and provided exposure to the cosmopolitan nature of 18th and 19th-century European upper-class society. Miranda, being a colonial, had not had the chance to go on the Grand Tour. He would rectify his missed chance. After reaching London, he would set out for the Netherlands and see the Continent.

As a man with command of many languages and being extremely well read, Miranda was able to ingratiate himself with the high society of each country he went to. His good looks and high wit were also helpful. He seemingly met everyone from Frederick the Great to Catherine the Great. He toured seemingly every city and historical location from Stockholm to Constantinople. Composers, philosophers, writers, and princes were all enthralled by him. He even allegedly had an affair with Catherine the Great, although this was never confirmed.

These contacts were not merely social for Miranda. It was a learning experience, yes, but he was also searching for support for his cause, the independence of Spanish America. Needing money, he would take financial support from them, then commonly called “patronage.” When he would inevitably (in his mind) strike for that independence, he wanted a network of supporters in Europe with their hands on the levers of power and money to give him their support when the time came. He was not simply playing the part of the international playboy gallivanting across the courts of Europe. There was a political dimension to this as well.

During his travels, Miranda would have to keep one eye always open. The Spanish government was still plotting to have him arrested. Through the Spanish intelligence network in Europe run through their national embassies and consulates, the Spanish would constantly attempt to arrest Miranda and bring him back to Spain. They knew what Miranda was doing, undermining their rule in the New World. In the end, the Spanish would fail to capture him due to a series of fortunate escapes as well as the influence of powerful friends. To protect Miranda, Catherine the Great would even make him a member of the Russian diplomatic service, thereby extending him diplomatic immunity.

For five years, Miranda would travel Europe. His travels would leave an indelible mark on those he met. In 1789, he traveled to France. Seeing the country, he despised what he saw as the backwardness of the peasantry. He wrote about visiting Versailles and feeling humiliated as he was forced to kneel upon seeing King Louis XVI. Miranda was not a fan of the French governmental system, and seeing it firsthand only made him despise it even more. He would leave France and return to London to begin lobbying the British government to support him.

Revolutionary Times

Miranda had a great deal of admiration for the British people and the balanced constitution of Great Britain. Although Miranda would remain a committed republican throughout his life, he would always recognize the inherent genius of the British governing system. Much of his admiration of the system itself would be tempered by seeing that system operate up close in his dealings with British Prime Minister William Pitt the Younger.

Miranda would bombard Pitt with plan after plan and scheme after scheme to liberate South America from Spanish rule. All he would need, he would tell Pitt, was money…and men…and arms…and ships, etc. Miranda was the ideas man, the brains of the operation. All of the material support would have to come from elsewhere, and where better than the richest government on the planet, the British. Pitt would always keep Miranda close enough to use him. Occasionally throwing out hope to Miranda would keep him around just in case war with Spain would break out and he might in some way be useful. For over a year, Miranda would act out the same song and dance with the British government until he could bear it no longer. He decided he would go back to France.

Why go back to France, a country Miranda held in little esteem? Because, during his time in London, the French Revolution had broken out. The people had limited the powers of the King and were overthrowing society through the National Convention. The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen, authored by his friend Thomas Paine, captivated him. Here was a revolution, freeing the people and ushering in the glorious millennium of human freedom.

Arriving in 1791, Miranda would find France at war with almost all of its neighbors. The powers of Europe found the prospect of a revolutionary and trending radical republican France upending hundreds of years of tradition, as well as the balance of power on the continent, terrifying. The revolutionaries needed anyone with military experience to help secure the revolution from foreign powers whose stated goal was to overthrow the Convention and restore the powers of the king. Miranda had military experience and was made a general and ordered to take command of troops as part of the Army of the North.

With the Allies coming over the Rhine and looking to take Paris, the French needed victory. The Battle of Valmy, while being little more than an artillery duel, led to an Allied retreat. This victory was blown up in republican propaganda and was the victory that saved the Revolution. All the men involved became heroes and were declared military geniuses, and this included Miranda.

With his military reputation sky-high, Miranda was given command of a wing of the Army of the North. He was ordered by the commander, General Dumouriez, to invade the Austrian Netherlands (roughly modern Belgium) and the Netherlands. He would take Antwerp and exact a £300,000 “loan” on the city. With Dumouriez in Paris, Miranda was ordered to occupy Maastricht by the National Convention. An Allied counterattack would lead to a rout on the part of Miranda’s army. Dumouriez would return to try to salvage the situation, but it was beyond saving. Miranda had suffered a humiliating defeat. Dumouriez, however, believed the situation could be turned around. He would reorganize his forces and counterattack. At the Battle of Neerwinden, Miranda was in command of the left wing of the army. He was ordered by Dumouriez to attack the Austrian right wing. The Austrian commander, the Prince of Coburg, reinforced his position and the battle went back and forth for several hours. When the cavalry of Archduke Charles was sent in to press the attacks home, Miranda’s command was broken, and the men began to flee. Despite all of his best efforts, Miranda was unable to rally his men. Dumouriez, learning of the shattering of his left wing, ordered the army to retreat.

The Radicals Turn on Miranda

For Miranda, the defeat at Neerwinden was very ill-timed. The Revolution was taking a dark turn. The siege mentality of the National Convention was turning into political paranoia as the different factions were turning on each other. The faction he was associated with, the Girondins, was in decline, while their rivals, the Jacobins, were ascendant. In April 1793, Miranda was arrested. His old commander, Dumouriez, recognizing the cut-throat nature of revolutionary politics, denounced Miranda and stated that the blame for the defeat in the north could be laid almost entirely in Miranda’s lap. Miranda was accused of criminal incompetence and cowardice in the face of the enemy.

Then the situation became even more confused. Dumouriez, seeing the way the Revolution was turning, decided to try to overthrow the Convention and restore a previously discarded constitution. Counting on the loyalty of his troops to himself personally, Dumouriez negotiated with the Austrians to stop their advance in order to free up the Army of the North to march on Paris and suppress the Convention. As it turned out, the troops were not loyal to Dumouriez personally, and he was forced to flee across enemy lines and defect to the Coalition. Back in Paris, the first reaction amongst the radicals was that of course, Miranda had supported his old commander Dumouriez in his treason. This flew in the face of all logic since it was Dumouriez who was trying to destroy Miranda’s reputation. Despite this, the paranoia of the Jacobins, and their leader Robespierre, knew no bounds. Miranda would be brought to trial for both sabotaging Dumouriez’s chances at victory as well as allegedly supporting the same man’s treason.

On April 8, 1793, Miranda was interrogated by the Convention’s War Committee. The questioning of Miranda and his fitness for command as well as his actions gave him the opportunity to address the committee and state his case. All of the learning, literary training, and military studies that Miranda had focused on his entire life led to this moment. Against all odds, he was able to defend himself so well before the War Committee that he was able to escape the guillotine. He showed the logic of his actions, proved the accusations of cowardice to be false, and attacked the judgment of Dumouriez. He even commented on Dumouriez’s negative opinions of the members of the Convention, just for good measure.

In May 1793, Miranda appeared before a Revolutionary Criminal Tribunal, which again investigated the charges against him. Witness after witness would appear before the tribunal to support Miranda. Even Thomas Paine would take the stand in Miranda’s defense. The defense attorney, Chaveau-Lagarde, would point out to the jury all that Miranda had sacrificed for the freedom of the French people. He showed that Miranda was a man with an international reputation for integrity and was known as a lover of mankind and a freedom fighter. The letters of introduction from men such as George Washington, Joseph Priestly, and Benjamin Franklin were introduced to prove Miranda’s devotion to republicanism. Although the process would take too long in the judgment of Miranda, he was acquitted on all charges and released. The jury had unanimously returned a verdict of not guilty.

In Revolutionary France, no one was truly safe. In July 1793, the most radical leaders of the revolution began to consolidate their power in the lead-up to the Great Terror. On July 5, Miranda was arrested again, this time at the order of the Committee of Public Safety. The Jacobins were determined to destroy their Girondin opponents, and Miranda was one of the most prominent. This time, imprisonment would not be the same. Whereas before, Miranda had been incarcerated for only a few weeks, this time, he would sit in prison for much longer. Even after the fall of the Committee of Public Safety and the defeat of the Jacobins, Miranda was still not released. Only after a year and a half, in January 1795, would Miranda finally be let out of his dungeon.

During his time in prison, Miranda had begun to lose faith in the Revolution. He would begin to write and speak to his contacts about how the Revolution had lost its initial ideals. He opposed “spreading the revolution” through military conquest and expressed his skepticism of the French government. He would write a pamphlet calling for the reformation of government to create more checks and balances to prevent dictatorship and tyranny. Given Miranda’s international connections and reputation, it could not escape the French government that he had to be taken seriously. On October 21, 1795, the Convention ordered Miranda to be arrested yet again. Although this order would be rescinded, the French government was growing very tired of Miranda.

Returning to His Roots

In 1797, the French government was prepared to deport Miranda to Guiana. He knew his time in France was up. Before he would leave, however, he would take the opportunity that being around other revolutionary exiles afforded and held what was later called the “Paris Convention.” This meeting between Miranda, José del Pozo y Sucre, and Manuel de Salas drafted an Act of Paris which set out points that would guide the South American independence movements. Independence and friendship with Great Britain and the United States, repayment to Britain for services rendered to the revolution, commercial concessions to Britain, and recognition of Miranda’s leading role in the military aspect of the revolution. These men knew that the South Americans would have a hard time freeing themselves. They needed British support.

With the Act of Paris complete, Miranda prepared to leave France. He came to the country and was filled with disgust for the absolutist French. Seeing the Revolution, Miranda became a convert to the French cause and put his life on the line to defend it. The repayment he received was accusations and imprisonment. Coming full circle, Miranda would leave France bitter against both the country and its people. He had always favored British and American models, but his experiences had only reinforced his early views.

In January 1798, Miranda would leave France and arrive in Britain. Now, at 47 years old, having seen much of the Western world, met many of its leading lights, and had his star rise, fall, rise, fall, and rise again, Miranda would now turn back to the primary thought driving his life, the freedom of Spanish America from colonial rule. No more diversions, it would now be all-encompassing.

What do you think of Francisco de Miranda’s time in America and Europe? Let us know below.

Now, read about Francisco Solano Lopez, the Paraguayan president who brought his country to military catastrophe in the War of the Triple Alliance here.

Spain in the New World: The Early Life of Revolutionary Francisco de Miranda

By the latter half of the 17th century, the rule of Spain in the New World was reaching 200 years. Times were changing, both in the New World and in Europe, and the leaders of Spain knew it. Their problem was what to do about it. Spain had never had a coherent policy in its imperial rule. Since 1492, Spain was seemingly constantly at war, with an endless series of crises thrown into the mix. Solutions had to be found for the here and now, the future would take care of itself.

Erick Reddington continues his look at the independence of Spanish America by looking at Venezuelan military leader and revolutionary Francisco de Miranda. He starts by considering Caracas in the 1750s and the life of his father, Sebastian de Miranda, before moving on to Francisco’s early life.

If you missed it, Erick’s article on the four viceroyalties is here.

A portrait of Francisco de Miranda in later life. By Martín Tovar y Tovar.

The Caracas of the 1750s was a city of contradictions. In the multi-layered world of the Spanish Empire, this is understandable. Caracas was the capital of the province of Caracas, making it an important city. However, it had always taken second place in New Granada to Bogotá. Located over the mountains, with a differing economy and population, Caracas was treated as an inferior by the colonial administration.

The sense of difference in Caracas was compounded by a racial aspect as well. Although modern conceptions of race did not quite exist in the 1750s, racial differences were not unknown. The elite of Caracas was dominated by descendants of Basque immigrants. For many, the starting point of the history of Spain as a united state began with the marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile. This merging of Castilian and Catalan created the modern concept of Spanish for many. Only later would the territories of the Basque Kingdom of Navarre south of the Pyrenees be brought into the Spanish Kingdom. The Basque language is unrelated to all Indo-European languages. The culture of the people was radically different than that of the rest of Spain. This sense of “otherness” led to many seeking out new lives in the Spanish Empire. Many of those would end up in Caracas.

What feelings of otherness were already felt by Caracas for New Granada were compounded by the otherness of the Basque elites who dominated the cultural, political, and military life of the city and the province. These elites created a society dominated by themselves, something that they could not achieve in fact in their homeland. Through the creation of the Caracas Company in 1728, a royal monopoly on trade in the area was created in exchange for the Basque elite’s help in curbing the endemic piracy and smuggling in the area. It is through this that the Basque elite came to dominate economically as well as culturally.

Sebastian de Miranda

It was into this Caracas that Sebastian de Miranda Ravelo would immigrate. Sebastian had been born, not in the Basque country, but the Canary Islands, a Spanish possession off the coast of Morocco. Sebastian began life in Caracas as a merchant of modest means whose primary business was selling canvas, a product vital in many industries, but primarily important for sailing ships. He would marry Francisca Antonia Rodríguez de Espinosa, a woman from Caracas who was in the class of “shore whites,” whites who did not have the same privileges as the Peninsulares and were considered by many to be only fit to be petty laborers.

Sebastian was a successful businessman. Despite his humble beginnings, and the social marginalization he faced, he was able to amass a sizeable fortune living in Caracas. With the money he made as a merchant, he bought real estate around Caracas, further growing his fortune. His growing wealth and notoriety led him to be appointed as a captain in the Company of White Canary Islanders, a militia unit raised to improve the defense of the region. This led to greater resentment amongst the elite of Caracas.

During all these happenings, Sebastian would have children, among them a son named Sebastian Francisco. Born in 1750, less than a year after his parents married, his father was able to provide him with the best upbringing Caracas could provide. First, there were Jesuit tutors. Once a solid base had been built, his education continued at the Academy of Santa Rosa. At only 12 years old, he was enrolled in The Royal and Pontifical University of Caracas. This was a traditional education based upon Latin, the Catechism of the Catholic Church, grammar, and history. Although valuable to Miranda, he would criticize his early education later in life, wishing that it had included more modern languages and economics. What it did do was instill a lifelong love for the ancient classics and rooted Miranda in stories of ancient Greek democratic and Roman republican politics.

It was during these formative years of Miranda’s life that his father had been rising to fabulous wealth and status. He was also rising to greater heights of resentment amongst the Caracas elite. In 1768, the elite decided to wage an open fight with the parvenu Sebastian. A complaint was filed against him claiming several issues, but most insulting for the time, the accusers claimed Sebastian was a ‘mulatto’. The accusers then approached the town council, which was already stacked against Sebastian, and demanded that he be arrested for misrepresentation and fraud, and forging documents. Sebastian, understanding where this was all coming from, requested military discharge the next day. This was partially to stop the attacks, but also to give him the free time to prove his innocence. His request was granted, however, the Governor granted Sebastian the right to wear his ceremonial uniform and keep his privileges granted as a merchant.

This crusade to prove the “purity” of his bloodline would consume both the older and younger Miranda for the next several years. Sebastian would successfully take his crusade to the king himself. After creating a genealogy proving his bloodline, he was able to obtain a statement by King Charles III that Sebastian’s bloodline was pure and his position in society, as well as all privileges and titles, were confirmed. Sebastian had taken this fight much farther than the elites of Caracas had ever intended it to go. In so doing, Sebastian only garnered greater resentment. Not only was he an interloper and parvenu in their eyes, but he had beaten them, and that was unforgivable.

Francisco Leaves Caracas

Watching and helping his father as much as he could, Miranda could only feel his resentment grow. Once his pure bloodline was proven, he decided to leave Caracas and all the resentments. He used the genealogy and certifications his father had accumulated and used them to apply for permission to join the Spanish Imperial service. He wanted to leave behind the parochial prejudices of the elites of Caracas and become a man of the world. On January 25, 1771, Miranda would board the Swedish ship Prince Frederick and let it take him away.

It is easy to see his motivations for leaving in light of his later life. Miranda’s resentment against elites and desire to bring freedom to people around the world can be drawn from his family’s treatment in Caracas. He believed that people should be able to rise on their own without unnecessary societal shackles. He saw how his father rose with those shackles and could consider how much farther he could have gone if left to his own devices. His idealism was that without what he saw as useless prejudices, people would naturally become harmonious and live together in peace and harmony. Together with his obsession with ancient Greek and Roman classics, molded Miranda into the idealistic Moses of the South American Revolutions.

Arriving in Spain after a six-week journey, Miranda was captivated by what he saw. The grand architecture, the historical sites, and importantly for him, the grand libraries with books unobtainable in what was still a colonial backwater. For two years, Miranda would devote himself to his academic studies as well as attempting to understand the Spain of his time. In 1773, his father would purchase for Miranda a commission in the Princess’s Regiment, granting the young man the chance to win the kind of martial glory he had studied so diligently.

Quest for Military Glory

After seeing initial service performing garrison duty in North Africa, Miranda became bored. Much like other men who believe they are born for greatness, mundane duties grew intolerably boring for him. Military glory cannot be obtained in a small garrison on the fringe of nowhere. He would gain combat experience during a brief war with Morocco, it was not the dashing service that he read about so intently. During the siege of Melilla, he would show some of the traits that would later come to embody his character. A firm belief in his destiny. Physical courage in combat. A desire to be where the action was. But also, a willingness to see the other side. Miranda would purchase a Koran during the siege to try to more fully understand the Muslim Moors opposing him. In his extensive diary, he never once expressed personal hostility or hatred of the Moors. He recognized their bravery and zeal for their cause. This desire to understand even the motivations of his enemies, would drive Miranda throughout his life.

After the fighting in Morocco, Miranda would also show another trait that would mark him - resistance to authority. He would constantly bombard his superiors with letters requesting promotions, transfers, and decorations. He would request in terms that, to modern ears would sound as flowery, but at the time, the tone and volume of correspondence were pushy at best and demanding at worst. Combined with his self-assurance, this was certain to be grating to his superiors. Miranda would even write to the king himself asking for the Order of Santiago. This restlessness and growing self-assurance would place him in jail several times for insubordination. Making enemies of your superior officers is never a good idea, and Miranda’s commander, Colonial Juan Roca, would repeatedly file charges against him.

By 1780, Spain was at war again. It had intervened in the American Revolution on the side of France (though Spain pointedly refused to recognize American independence). Troops were needed in the New World to strike at British positions throughout the hemisphere. Miranda would finally be granted the transfer he was long requesting. To be sure, his superiors would have been happy to be rid of him anyway. Miranda was transferred to the Regiment of Aragon and put on a ship to America. This Spanish plan was to use the American Revolution as a way to strike at the British Empire and avenge the humiliating defeat during the Seven Years’ War. The Spanish wanted to reconquer their lost colony of Florida, which they had been compelled to surrender in 1763. The expedition was led by the brilliant Spanish General Bernardo de Galvez.

On the journey from Spain to Havana, the leader of the naval force carrying the troops was Admiral José Solano y Bote, the former governor of Caracas who had supported his father during the controversy over his genealogy. Solano would immediately recognize Miranda and help out the son of his old friend. Miranda was moved out of his regiment, promoted, and made aide-de-camp to Manuel de Cagigal, the governor of Cuba. With promotion and fantastic references, Miranda was now on his way. He would participate in the Siege of Pensacola in 1781. He would help raise money for the French fleet which would go on to win the Battle of the Chesapeake, leading to the victory at Yorktown. Miranda would now begin to help plan the invasion of Jamaica, the jewel of the British Caribbean Empire.

Problems Follow

All was not well for Miranda, however. The Battle of the Saintes would lead to the end of any thought of invading Jamaica. His problems with authority would return. General de Galvez, the architect of the successful campaign against Pensacola, was an object of derision for Miranda. Along with other officers that Miranda had bumped up against along the way, he was making a powerful list of enemies.

After Pensacola, Miranda was sent to the British to arrange the release of about 900 prisoners of war. A further, unrecorded mission was to act as a spy on what the British were up to in the area. Relying on contacts he had made in the aftermath of Pensacola, he got in touch with the British. Miranda, being the smooth operator that he was, had no difficulty arranging the release of the prisoners. Unfortunately, he also entered into an arrangement with Philip Allwood, a British merchant, to fill the ships transporting the prisoners back to Spanish custody with Allwood’s goods and make a fortune on contraband goods.

When Miranda returned, he was found out almost immediately. In addition to charges of smuggling, he also faced charges that he was a spy for the British. Miranda had always been an avid reader. He purchased books wherever he went. This included English language versions of books that would have been banned in Spain. This was used against him. The Minister of the Indies was José de Galvez, uncle of Bernardo. It seemed the de Galvez family, as well as those who had personal and professional differences with Miranda were all coming together to destroy him. He realized that eventually that his enemies were going to find a way to destroy him. It would be the same as with his father. The attacks would continue, and the charges would pile up, until one day the one charge that stuck would come.

At some point during this personal crisis he was facing, Miranda began to realize that despite professed loyalty to king and country, he would forever be a colonial in the eyes of the Spanish. Of course, all of the issues he was facing were not his fault, the persecution came from a variety of external factors. Miranda began personalizing these issues and began seeing himself as different from other Spaniards. He was an American. Spanish service was no longer for him.

Learning that he was going to be arrested, potentially this time for treason, due to the accusations of being a spy, Miranda resolved to escape. He would write to friends and tell them he was going to go back to Spain personally to clear his name. Then it became going back to Spain through the United States. On June 1, 1783, Miranda boarded an American ship and sailed for the United States. It was only the beginning of his wanderings, but this first step would lead to Miranda taking up a part on the stage of world history. The question was, how big a part would he play?

What do you think of Francisco de Miranda’s early life? Let us know below.

Now, read about Francisco Solano Lopez, the Paraguayan president who brought his country to military catastrophe in the War of the Triple Alliance here.