The Earliest Revolutionary in the New World?

When people think of revolutionary fighters in the Americas they often think of George Washington, Toussaint Louverture, or Simón Bolívar. However, the first revolutionary fighter attempting to liberate the New World from European colonialism did not live in the 18th or 19th century but instead lived almost 200 years before. Here, Nick Bobertz explains the story of Lope de Aguirre.

A depiction of Lope de Aguirre.

In the year 1561 a group of Spanish conquistadors set out on an expedition to discover the lost city of El Dorado somewhere in the Amazon jungle. One of these conquistadors was a man named Lope de Aguirre who would go insane in the jungles of the Amazon, seize power over the Spanish expedition, and attempt to liberate all Spanish colonies in the new world.

This is the story of how one conquistador became mad with power and attempted to seize complete power over the Spanish colonies in the Americas. Much of what we know about Aguirre comes from a handful of sources, the primary of which is a letter he sent to King Phillip II renouncing his reign and declaring war on Spain.

Lope de Aguirre In Spain

As historians we know very little about the youth and upbringing of Lope de Aguirre. He was born in northern Spain sometime around the year 1510. More than likely his family was of lower noble birth in the Kingdom of Navarre. We believe this is the case because Lope de Aguirre was fairly literate for his time and his family name indicates a heritage from Northern Spain.

Sometime in his 20s Aguirre would migrate south to Seville. It is perhaps that Aguirre decided to move here in search of riches and adventure in the Spanish Reconquista which ended in 1492 with the fall of the Nasrid kingdom of Granada.

It is assumed that while living in Seville Aguirre would have seen Hernando Pizarro returning on January 9th, 1534 to a hero's welcome after having conquered the Inca Kingdom. Aguirre would have seen Pizarro being given substantial land in the new world by King Charles of Spain. This undoubtedly had an impact upon the young conquistador as only 3 years later Aguirre was somehow in the former Inca capital Peru.

Lope de Aguirre In The New World

While in the New World Lope de Aguirre became known for both his violence against the natives as well as his hatred for the Spanish Crown. On top of this Aguirre was known to be a person who acted before thinking, which led to a series of ill thought out plans. One of which was that in 1544 Aguirre attempted to free the new Spanish viceroy of South America from imprisonment with a handful of men but failed drastically.

In 1551 when Lope de Aguirre was arrested in Potosi on charges of excessive violence against the natives. In court Aguirre stated that he was a member of the Spanish gentry and that as such he was immune by law to public humiliation. The judge didn't agree with Aguirre and had him publicly whipped in the city streets.

Lope de Aguirre was a man driven by greed, ambition, and most of all pride. This became apparent after his public humiliation by Judge Esquivel. After Aguirre was flogged in the streets of Potosi he would track Judge Esquivel across the Spanish colonies in the new world for 3 years before finally killing him.

Because of this stunt Aguirre became known as a mad man who would stop at nothing to accomplish his goals. In 1559 Spanish conquistador Pedro de Ursua began to assemble a group of explorers to go into the Amazon rainforest in search of the legendary city of El Dorado. Lope de Aguirre was of course going to be a part of this.

1560 Expedition

Sometime in 1560 a now middle aged Lope de Aguirre would set out on an expedition with around 300 conquistadors and hundreds of natives to serve as cooks, guides, and a baggage train. Besides himself Aguirre would bring a few conquistadors loyal to him and his daughter on this expedition.

The Voyage That Ended In Two Mutinies, Hundreds Dead, and Aguirre The Crazed Conquistador In Charge

This expedition left Lima and crossed the Andes mountain range. Their initial plan was to make rafts on the Maranon River and float down into the Amazon River and out into the Atlantic. However, something happened after they crossed the Andes mountain range.

The story is that the expedition leader Pedro de Ursua refused to allow Lope de Aguirre to bring his mistress on the expedition. Further, it appears that Pedro de Ursa noticed that the expedition was not prepared properly for the harsh climate of the Amazon basin and wanted to turn around. This gave Aguirre the pretext to begin to plot an assassination and mutiny against Pedro de Ursua on the grounds that he was leading the expedition astray.

After the death of Pedro de Ursa the conquistadors built a series of makeshift rafts and elected a young noble from Seville called Fernando de Guzman. Over the next month Aguirre and Guzman would argue over the course of the voyage and Aguirre would then assassinate Guzman. After this Aguirre was in charge and would start to remove people who did not agree with him. All together Lope de Aguirre claimed to have killed 15 people in order to seize power over the expedition.

After successfully taking control over the expedition Lope de Aguirre was in charge of only a handful of conquistadors. Over the next year they would wander around the Amazon River Basin completely lost and looking for the mythical city of gold, El Dorado. The river, disease, and famine ended up causing the expedition to dwindle to only a few men along with Aguirre.

After about 100 days of drifting Aguirre and his crew made it to the Atlantic ocean. In all they had managed to survive on rafts for 100 days and covering more than 1,300 miles.

War On Spain

Aguirre would come out of the Amazon river basin in the delta of the Orinoco river. Something happened on this voyage that made Aguirre believe that his enemy was none other than the king of Spain.

With his ragtag group of conquistadors Aguirre would then turn north and sail another 300 miles on his rafts to the nearest European settled Island. This was the Spanish held Island of Margarita which is on the coast of modern Venezuela.

On the northwest side of the Island there was the port city of Pampatar which was founded in 1536. This is where Aguirre would attack in 1561. We don't have much details of the event but in the end Aguirre would seize control over the island and have his men declare him the Prince of the new world.

While on this island Aguirre would institute a series of changes. The governor of the Island spoke out against these changes and was killed. On top of this Aguirre had a man from Germany executed because he was a Protestant. That is all we know of Aguirre's couple of months as ruler of the island as he would immediately leave to attempt to start a revolution in Panama.

In the winter months of 1561/62 Lope de Aguirre would die after being surrounded and defeated at Barquisimeto, Venezuela. However, in this time he had begun to gain a following across the population as a revolutionary who was fighting against Spain.

So how do we as historians know all of this happened?

Aguirre's Letter

After taking control over the Island of Margarita Lope de Aguirre would write a letter and send it to King Phillip II of Spain. In this letter Aguirre outlines exactly what he did on his voyage, what the king did to him, and how he was going to free the Spanish colonies from European possession. (I highly suggest you read the letter that you can find by clicking here.)

As historians we can piece together exactly what happened in the mad mind of Aguirre. He seized the expedition, killed all those who opposed him, promised his men freedom, and then captured the Island of Margarita.

What is interesting is Aguirre's justification for declaring war against King Phillip of Spain. There is one passage from this letter that presents Aguirre's justification for rebelling against the King of Spain. The important thing to remember when reading this passage is that kings were divinely mandated, and as such simply better then the average person.

"Illustrious King, we do not ask for grants in Cordoba or Valladolid, nor in any part of Spain, which is your patrimony. Deign to feed the weary and poor with the fruits and proceeds from this land. Remember, King and Lord, that God is the same for all, and the same justice, reward, heaven, and hell."

This passage demonstrates that Aguirre is rebelling because he feels as though the King of Spain and his servants have been unfair to the common person in the New World. They take nearly all of the resources and leave nothing for the lower conquistadors and natives.

The most telling part here however is the end. That "god is the same for all, and the same justice, reward, heaven, and hell." This is very interesting because at this point in history people were taught that the nobility of the land was born with a divine reason for being better.

Aguirre here is destroying this idea and presenting libertas or that all people are created equal. This idea of liberty and the creation of equality among people regardless of birth can be seen in other revolutionary documents, namely the Declaration of Independence.

As such, we can look at Aguirre as a revolutionary fighter. In 1561 a man and a group of men attempted to seize control over the colonies of New Spain. These revolutionary fighters had the idea of liberty and self-governance long before the revolutionary wars of the 19th century.

Conclusion

Aguirre’s is a fascinating story. Many people are not aware of him and his ill fated voyage which turned into a revolution.

For much of history people have thought of Aguirre as a mad man who committed horrendous acts to seek personal glory and wealth. While this is the case he also can be considered the first revolutionary fighter in the Americas.

What do you think of Lope de Aguirre? Let us know below.

I hope you enjoyed this article. My name is Nicklaus Bobertz and I hold a master's degree in History from the University of Central Florida, have published in Cambridge University Press, and presented research at The University of Toronto.

I also run, write, and manage my own history blog where I give simple answers to history's hard questions. You can find me at TheHistoryAce.com.

Spain in the New World: The Early Life of Revolutionary Francisco de Miranda

By the latter half of the 17th century, the rule of Spain in the New World was reaching 200 years. Times were changing, both in the New World and in Europe, and the leaders of Spain knew it. Their problem was what to do about it. Spain had never had a coherent policy in its imperial rule. Since 1492, Spain was seemingly constantly at war, with an endless series of crises thrown into the mix. Solutions had to be found for the here and now, the future would take care of itself.

Erick Reddington continues his look at the independence of Spanish America by looking at Venezuelan military leader and revolutionary Francisco de Miranda. He starts by considering Caracas in the 1750s and the life of his father, Sebastian de Miranda, before moving on to Francisco’s early life.

If you missed it, Erick’s article on the four viceroyalties is here.

A portrait of Francisco de Miranda in later life. By Martín Tovar y Tovar.

The Caracas of the 1750s was a city of contradictions. In the multi-layered world of the Spanish Empire, this is understandable. Caracas was the capital of the province of Caracas, making it an important city. However, it had always taken second place in New Granada to Bogotá. Located over the mountains, with a differing economy and population, Caracas was treated as an inferior by the colonial administration.

The sense of difference in Caracas was compounded by a racial aspect as well. Although modern conceptions of race did not quite exist in the 1750s, racial differences were not unknown. The elite of Caracas was dominated by descendants of Basque immigrants. For many, the starting point of the history of Spain as a united state began with the marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile. This merging of Castilian and Catalan created the modern concept of Spanish for many. Only later would the territories of the Basque Kingdom of Navarre south of the Pyrenees be brought into the Spanish Kingdom. The Basque language is unrelated to all Indo-European languages. The culture of the people was radically different than that of the rest of Spain. This sense of “otherness” led to many seeking out new lives in the Spanish Empire. Many of those would end up in Caracas.

What feelings of otherness were already felt by Caracas for New Granada were compounded by the otherness of the Basque elites who dominated the cultural, political, and military life of the city and the province. These elites created a society dominated by themselves, something that they could not achieve in fact in their homeland. Through the creation of the Caracas Company in 1728, a royal monopoly on trade in the area was created in exchange for the Basque elite’s help in curbing the endemic piracy and smuggling in the area. It is through this that the Basque elite came to dominate economically as well as culturally.

Sebastian de Miranda

It was into this Caracas that Sebastian de Miranda Ravelo would immigrate. Sebastian had been born, not in the Basque country, but the Canary Islands, a Spanish possession off the coast of Morocco. Sebastian began life in Caracas as a merchant of modest means whose primary business was selling canvas, a product vital in many industries, but primarily important for sailing ships. He would marry Francisca Antonia Rodríguez de Espinosa, a woman from Caracas who was in the class of “shore whites,” whites who did not have the same privileges as the Peninsulares and were considered by many to be only fit to be petty laborers.

Sebastian was a successful businessman. Despite his humble beginnings, and the social marginalization he faced, he was able to amass a sizeable fortune living in Caracas. With the money he made as a merchant, he bought real estate around Caracas, further growing his fortune. His growing wealth and notoriety led him to be appointed as a captain in the Company of White Canary Islanders, a militia unit raised to improve the defense of the region. This led to greater resentment amongst the elite of Caracas.

During all these happenings, Sebastian would have children, among them a son named Sebastian Francisco. Born in 1750, less than a year after his parents married, his father was able to provide him with the best upbringing Caracas could provide. First, there were Jesuit tutors. Once a solid base had been built, his education continued at the Academy of Santa Rosa. At only 12 years old, he was enrolled in The Royal and Pontifical University of Caracas. This was a traditional education based upon Latin, the Catechism of the Catholic Church, grammar, and history. Although valuable to Miranda, he would criticize his early education later in life, wishing that it had included more modern languages and economics. What it did do was instill a lifelong love for the ancient classics and rooted Miranda in stories of ancient Greek democratic and Roman republican politics.

It was during these formative years of Miranda’s life that his father had been rising to fabulous wealth and status. He was also rising to greater heights of resentment amongst the Caracas elite. In 1768, the elite decided to wage an open fight with the parvenu Sebastian. A complaint was filed against him claiming several issues, but most insulting for the time, the accusers claimed Sebastian was a ‘mulatto’. The accusers then approached the town council, which was already stacked against Sebastian, and demanded that he be arrested for misrepresentation and fraud, and forging documents. Sebastian, understanding where this was all coming from, requested military discharge the next day. This was partially to stop the attacks, but also to give him the free time to prove his innocence. His request was granted, however, the Governor granted Sebastian the right to wear his ceremonial uniform and keep his privileges granted as a merchant.

This crusade to prove the “purity” of his bloodline would consume both the older and younger Miranda for the next several years. Sebastian would successfully take his crusade to the king himself. After creating a genealogy proving his bloodline, he was able to obtain a statement by King Charles III that Sebastian’s bloodline was pure and his position in society, as well as all privileges and titles, were confirmed. Sebastian had taken this fight much farther than the elites of Caracas had ever intended it to go. In so doing, Sebastian only garnered greater resentment. Not only was he an interloper and parvenu in their eyes, but he had beaten them, and that was unforgivable.

Francisco Leaves Caracas

Watching and helping his father as much as he could, Miranda could only feel his resentment grow. Once his pure bloodline was proven, he decided to leave Caracas and all the resentments. He used the genealogy and certifications his father had accumulated and used them to apply for permission to join the Spanish Imperial service. He wanted to leave behind the parochial prejudices of the elites of Caracas and become a man of the world. On January 25, 1771, Miranda would board the Swedish ship Prince Frederick and let it take him away.

It is easy to see his motivations for leaving in light of his later life. Miranda’s resentment against elites and desire to bring freedom to people around the world can be drawn from his family’s treatment in Caracas. He believed that people should be able to rise on their own without unnecessary societal shackles. He saw how his father rose with those shackles and could consider how much farther he could have gone if left to his own devices. His idealism was that without what he saw as useless prejudices, people would naturally become harmonious and live together in peace and harmony. Together with his obsession with ancient Greek and Roman classics, molded Miranda into the idealistic Moses of the South American Revolutions.

Arriving in Spain after a six-week journey, Miranda was captivated by what he saw. The grand architecture, the historical sites, and importantly for him, the grand libraries with books unobtainable in what was still a colonial backwater. For two years, Miranda would devote himself to his academic studies as well as attempting to understand the Spain of his time. In 1773, his father would purchase for Miranda a commission in the Princess’s Regiment, granting the young man the chance to win the kind of martial glory he had studied so diligently.

Quest for Military Glory

After seeing initial service performing garrison duty in North Africa, Miranda became bored. Much like other men who believe they are born for greatness, mundane duties grew intolerably boring for him. Military glory cannot be obtained in a small garrison on the fringe of nowhere. He would gain combat experience during a brief war with Morocco, it was not the dashing service that he read about so intently. During the siege of Melilla, he would show some of the traits that would later come to embody his character. A firm belief in his destiny. Physical courage in combat. A desire to be where the action was. But also, a willingness to see the other side. Miranda would purchase a Koran during the siege to try to more fully understand the Muslim Moors opposing him. In his extensive diary, he never once expressed personal hostility or hatred of the Moors. He recognized their bravery and zeal for their cause. This desire to understand even the motivations of his enemies, would drive Miranda throughout his life.

After the fighting in Morocco, Miranda would also show another trait that would mark him - resistance to authority. He would constantly bombard his superiors with letters requesting promotions, transfers, and decorations. He would request in terms that, to modern ears would sound as flowery, but at the time, the tone and volume of correspondence were pushy at best and demanding at worst. Combined with his self-assurance, this was certain to be grating to his superiors. Miranda would even write to the king himself asking for the Order of Santiago. This restlessness and growing self-assurance would place him in jail several times for insubordination. Making enemies of your superior officers is never a good idea, and Miranda’s commander, Colonial Juan Roca, would repeatedly file charges against him.

By 1780, Spain was at war again. It had intervened in the American Revolution on the side of France (though Spain pointedly refused to recognize American independence). Troops were needed in the New World to strike at British positions throughout the hemisphere. Miranda would finally be granted the transfer he was long requesting. To be sure, his superiors would have been happy to be rid of him anyway. Miranda was transferred to the Regiment of Aragon and put on a ship to America. This Spanish plan was to use the American Revolution as a way to strike at the British Empire and avenge the humiliating defeat during the Seven Years’ War. The Spanish wanted to reconquer their lost colony of Florida, which they had been compelled to surrender in 1763. The expedition was led by the brilliant Spanish General Bernardo de Galvez.

On the journey from Spain to Havana, the leader of the naval force carrying the troops was Admiral José Solano y Bote, the former governor of Caracas who had supported his father during the controversy over his genealogy. Solano would immediately recognize Miranda and help out the son of his old friend. Miranda was moved out of his regiment, promoted, and made aide-de-camp to Manuel de Cagigal, the governor of Cuba. With promotion and fantastic references, Miranda was now on his way. He would participate in the Siege of Pensacola in 1781. He would help raise money for the French fleet which would go on to win the Battle of the Chesapeake, leading to the victory at Yorktown. Miranda would now begin to help plan the invasion of Jamaica, the jewel of the British Caribbean Empire.

Problems Follow

All was not well for Miranda, however. The Battle of the Saintes would lead to the end of any thought of invading Jamaica. His problems with authority would return. General de Galvez, the architect of the successful campaign against Pensacola, was an object of derision for Miranda. Along with other officers that Miranda had bumped up against along the way, he was making a powerful list of enemies.

After Pensacola, Miranda was sent to the British to arrange the release of about 900 prisoners of war. A further, unrecorded mission was to act as a spy on what the British were up to in the area. Relying on contacts he had made in the aftermath of Pensacola, he got in touch with the British. Miranda, being the smooth operator that he was, had no difficulty arranging the release of the prisoners. Unfortunately, he also entered into an arrangement with Philip Allwood, a British merchant, to fill the ships transporting the prisoners back to Spanish custody with Allwood’s goods and make a fortune on contraband goods.

When Miranda returned, he was found out almost immediately. In addition to charges of smuggling, he also faced charges that he was a spy for the British. Miranda had always been an avid reader. He purchased books wherever he went. This included English language versions of books that would have been banned in Spain. This was used against him. The Minister of the Indies was José de Galvez, uncle of Bernardo. It seemed the de Galvez family, as well as those who had personal and professional differences with Miranda were all coming together to destroy him. He realized that eventually that his enemies were going to find a way to destroy him. It would be the same as with his father. The attacks would continue, and the charges would pile up, until one day the one charge that stuck would come.

At some point during this personal crisis he was facing, Miranda began to realize that despite professed loyalty to king and country, he would forever be a colonial in the eyes of the Spanish. Of course, all of the issues he was facing were not his fault, the persecution came from a variety of external factors. Miranda began personalizing these issues and began seeing himself as different from other Spaniards. He was an American. Spanish service was no longer for him.

Learning that he was going to be arrested, potentially this time for treason, due to the accusations of being a spy, Miranda resolved to escape. He would write to friends and tell them he was going to go back to Spain personally to clear his name. Then it became going back to Spain through the United States. On June 1, 1783, Miranda boarded an American ship and sailed for the United States. It was only the beginning of his wanderings, but this first step would lead to Miranda taking up a part on the stage of world history. The question was, how big a part would he play?

What do you think of Francisco de Miranda’s early life? Let us know below.

Now, read about Francisco Solano Lopez, the Paraguayan president who brought his country to military catastrophe in the War of the Triple Alliance here.

Spain in the New World: The Four Viceroyalties

By the latter half of the 17th century, the rule of Spain in the New World was reaching 200 years. Times were changing, both in the New World and in Europe, and the leaders of Spain knew it. Their problem was what to do about it. Spain had never had a coherent policy in its imperial rule. Since 1492, Spain was seemingly constantly at war, with an endless series of crises thrown into the mix. Solutions had to be found for the here and now, the future would take care of itself.

In this major series of articles Erick Reddington continues his look at the independence of Spanish America by looking at the four viceroyalties in the region: New Spain, New Granada, Peru, and La Plata.

A soldado de cuera, a group of soldiers who served in the frontiers of New Spain in the colonial period.

The mid- to late- seventeenth century has been, for decades, labeled “The Age of Absolutism.” This “Absolutism” has always implied the unquestioned and unconditional rule by one man: the king. This absolutism meant that the king was what modern people would think of as some 1930s style dictator who had complete control of his country and people.

This view is a product of post-revolutionary scholarship to justify the revolutions against the old order. Even more than a cursory glance at the governing structures of the 17th century will show the truth. Decades and centuries of traditions, bureaucratic structures, compromises, and privileges granted to localities and nobility made the governments of this time function a far cry from absolutist. Spain was no different. The Spanish Empire in America certainly did not function this way.

The primary reason the Spanish Empire could not function in this fashion was simple: distance. From Seville, the primary Spanish trading port to Vera Cruz, the main port in New Spain, was almost 5,700 nautical miles. Sailing 5 knots, it would take about 48 days from port to port. This does not include accounting for bad weather, stopping for supplies, or quarantines. It would be impossible to handle immediate situations with a twelve-week round-trip communication time.

Since immediate communication was impossible, in 1524, Charles V created the Council of the Indies. With the Bourbon Reforms, in 1714 this was superseded by a single Secretary of the Navy and the Indies. In the 1760s, this department was broken up and the Indies received its own portfolio. Neither a single minister nor a council based in Madrid could control the whole of Spanish America in an effective way. Universal rules for the entirety of the empire would not work. Stretching from the Arctic (in theory) to Tierra del Fuego, this territory encompasses a dizzying array of peoples, climates, and conditions. Madrid could never account for all circumstances and conditions. This led to the creation and increase in power of the viceroys.

The concept of a viceroy, or a person acting in the name of, and with the powers of, the king was not new. Its use in the formal administrative system of the empire was natural. When more and more territory was falling under Spanish control in the early 16th century, it was realized very early on that there was just too much territory to govern easily from Madrid. Spain could not just let the newly conquered territory go, however. There was simply too much wealth available to just walk away. The territory had to be governed, and this led to the first of the viceroyalties to be created: New Spain.

New Spain

New Spain was established early, created in 1535. Home of the original source of wealth from the New World, the fabulous wealth of the conquered Aztecs, New Spain grew into the most important of the viceroyalties for Spain. This was not simply intended to be an appendage of the mother country, however. This was the Kingdom of New Spain with King Charles on the throne. Since he could not be in two places at once, the viceroy would simply execute the kings powers in his absence. This system proved satisfactory in New Spain and would be replicated throughout Spanish America.

New Spain was enormous. Encompassing all the islands in the Caribbean under Spanish control, most of Central America, Florida, Mexico, the United States west of the Mississippi River, and the Oregon Country up to the 54th parallel, this territory was vital to Spain. From the agricultural wealth of the Cuban sugar plantations to the silver mines of Mexico, the wealth of New Spain made it the most important colony. Its capital, Mexico City, was the most important city in Spanish America. Built upon the ruins of the Aztec capital, Tenochtitlan, it was the most populous and richest city in the Spanish Empire. To be the governor of New Spain and take up residence in the viceregal capital was to reach the top of the colonial administration.

Even in this, the most important colony, the colony was sparsely under control. The Caribbean islands were under tight control due to the economic potential, but in the north and south of the colony, little had changed from pre-Columbian times. The north was full of tribes, many of whom could go decades without seeing any Spanish administrators. The most European contact these natives could have would be explorers on the coast or Catholic missionaries looking to convert them. This is how many of the famous missions, such as San Juan Capistrano and the Alamo, arose. For Spain, trading and converting these natives was the extent of their ambition.

In the south of the viceroyalty, many of the native tribes lived as they had for thousands of years. Like the north, in the interior trading and conversion were the primary goals of administration. On the coasts, however, the situation was different. Due to the tropical climate of the area, sugar production was possible, and therefore a plantation economy predominated. Because of the economic importance of the area, there were significant fortifications built and port defenses took priority. This led to disruptions of native life as well as a more militarized society than existed in the north of the colony or in the interior.

The most controversial part of New Spain, from a Spanish point of view was Louisiana. Originally founded as a French colony, Louisiana had great unrealized economic potential. Most importantly for Spain was that control of Louisiana, and its great port at the mouth of the Mississippi River, New Orleans, would provide a territorial link to the colony of Florida, which Spain had claims to. In 1763, at the failure of the Seven Years’ War, France had ceded this territory to Spain, which was incorporated into New Spain. It was used as a base for the Spanish to strike at the British during the American Revolution. After that war, Britain ceded Florida back to Spain. Later, in 1800, during the Napoleonic Wars, Spain ceded Louisiana back to France under the agreement that France would not cede the territory to another country. Only three years later, France sold the territory to the United States. For New Spain, the border of Louisiana was ill-defined. The resulting border tensions with the US would carry on after independence. In the years prior to the outbreak of the Latin American Revolutions, New Spain had been led by a series of very able Viceroys. Men like Carlos de Croix and Antonio de Bucareli y Ursúa were energetic in carrying out the Bourbon Reforms. A series of roads (called El Camino Real) to improve communication and travel were built. Military reforms were carried out to better defend the vast territory from British predation. The Jesuits were expelled to increase greater governmental control and weaken the hierarchy of the church. The colony even had its own squadrons of ships to control the coasts and significantly reduce the endemic piracy of the Caribbean.

New Granada

South of New Spain was the Kingdom of New Granada. Originally carved out from parts of Peru and New Spain, New Granada covered the northern part of South America and Panama. Of the four viceroyalties, this one was the least developed politically and economically. This was not entirely due to poor administration on the part of the Spanish. Two geographic features dominated the territory: mountains and jungle. The northern reaches of the Andes mountains made communication difficult. Road construction was extremely treacherous due to the broken terrain. In the valleys, jungles made the territory difficult to traverse. There were also tropical diseases and dangerous animals. The mountains and jungles, with little to no roads, made the logistics of any expedition into the interior mind-boggling.

Further exasperating attempts to expand were the natives of New Granada. With logistics so poor, it was extremely difficult to mount any type of expedition with sufficient force necessary to dislodge the natives from vast swaths of the territory. Of course, the natives did not want to be dislodged. Of these tribes, the most formidable were the Wayuu. Unlike many other South American tribes, the Wayuu were very happy to adopt European weapons and horses. In 1769, the Guajira Rebellion broke out in what is now the border area between Venezuela and Colombia. An estimated 20,000 warriors would attack and destroy any Spanish settlements they could take. Spain’s enemies, Britain and the Netherlands, were more than happy to supply the Wayuu with the guns and horses they were looking for. Although the rebellion would peter out over the ensuing months, it was a sign of the lack of control Spain had over the territory.

Due to the nightmarish terrain of the territory, the importance of the Captain-Generalcy division of the colony was more pronounced than in other viceroyalties. Foremost among these was the Captain-Generalcy of Venezuela. Originally founded centuries before as the attempted colony of Klein Venedig, Venezuela, unlike the rest of New Granada, had been under the jurisdiction of New Spain, not Peru. There was a sense of separateness for Venezuelans. This was further exasperated by the differing economy prevailing there. Cocoa and tobacco were the primary agricultural products of Venezuela. This differed from other colonies focused on either mining or sugar production. Also, due to the types of products grown in Venezuela, it saw a larger number of African slaves imported into the colony than the other parts of New Granada. This led to a different racial demographic and subsequently, racial attitudes were different there.

The internal divisions and cultural differences of the people of New Granada would lead to many problems during the revolutionary period. Although there were many times in which the colony came together to defeat external threats, such as major attacks during the War of Jenkins’ Ear, there was little politically or culturally to tie the kingdom together.

Peru

In the eyes of Spaniards, Peru rivalled New Spain in value to the mother country. The Kingdom of Peru was originally built on the ashes of the Inca Empire, just as New Spain was on the Aztecs. Peru gave Spain access to the Pacific Ocean along with New Spain. New Spain had a diverse economy with trade, agriculture, and mining all contributing to the wealth of the colony. Peru’s fabulous wealth was based primarily on mining. The Potosí mine is still today the largest source of silver on Earth. The wealth of Peru had been feeding the Spanish government for hundreds of years.

The Inca inheritance helped the Spanish in many ways. The terrain of Peru was much like New Granada, mountainous and full of jungle. However, the Inca were dedicated road builders who emphasized communication and speed of travel, especially for armies. This network of roads served Spain well in tapping the vast wealth of the country. The land was also more heavily populated with Natives than many other areas. Tribes such as the Quechua and Aymara served as trading partners, a source of converts, and erstwhile enemies. Due to the distances involved, it was deemed inefficient to bring in African slaves on a large scale to work the mines. Therefore, these tribes also served as a labor pool. Working and living in conditions no better than slavery, the great wealth of Peru was obtained off the backs of these natives.

Resentments amongst the natives would eventually grow into the Tupac Amaru Rebellion. A Quechua leader who styled himself Tupac Amaru II (after the last King of the Inca, Tupac Amaru), led tens of thousands of natives in a rising against the viceregal authorities. Curiously, Tupac Amaru told his followers he was acting in the name of the Spanish king against the corrupt colonial authorities. Although this rebellion would last only a short time, it would scar the colony, and lead to many leaders, such as Viceroy Ambrosio O’Higgins, to call for a more cooperative policy with the natives.

Originally, the Kingdom of Peru consisted of all the Spanish lands in South America, except for Venezuela. With the Bourbon Reforms, many of these territories had been shorn off. On the eve of the Wars of Independence, Peru was down to modern day Peru and Chile. Despite this, Peru was still considered one of the most important parts of the empire. Lima, the capital, was considered by its denizens the most important Spanish city in the Americas (Mexico City would disagree, of course).

Residing in Lima, like in Mexico City, were a series of Viceroys who provided bold leadership and innovative reforms. Ambrosio O’Higgins encourage trade and manufacturing. Infrastructure was improved, especially transport over the Andes. José de Armendárez encouraged greater silver production and attempted to crack down on corruption. The last Viceroy before the revolutions, Jose de Abascal y Sousa promoted internal reform, particularly bureaucratic and educational reform. The army was also reformed to make it more efficient and combat ready.

The Spanish focus on Peru and its importance, as well as the care that the crown showered on the colony, would lead to what was probably the most royalist colony in the Americas. Support for the king and the empire was probably higher in Peru than any other colony. It would consistently be a thorn in the side of the revolutionaries.

La Plata

The Viceroyalty of the Río de La Plata was, unlike the others, not an official kingdom. It began life as a viceroyalty. Due to the distances and communication difficulties involved, in retrospect, having the La Plata River basin under the control of Lima was absurd. Further, due to the inability to control an area so distant from the capital, corruption and smuggling were endemic. The area at the mouth of the Plata River was seen by many administrators in Spain as a cesspool that needed a firm hand and nothing more. As the Bourbon Reforms were meant to be based in rationality, the only rational thing to do would be to divide the administration. In 1776, the new viceroyalty was proclaimed with its capital at Buenos Aires. A large portion of Peru was spun off to the new La Plata to make a more Atlantic oriented unit, leaving Peru a Pacific viceroyalty.

The problem with expectations is that they are self-fulfilling. As La Plata was seen as a colonial backwater that was full of crime and corruption, only the worst colonial administrators wanted to go there. Despite the Potosí mine being designated in La Plata, revenues from the new colony were poor. The Spanish never fully realized the potential of the La Plata River basin. Others, however, did.

During the early Napoleonic Wars, when Spain was allied to France, British leaders believed that the La Plata would make a fine addition to their empire. Naval blockades would choke off the seaborne commerce of the area. Raids on the region would make life difficult for the inhabitants. In 1807, the British would occupy Buenos Aires. The reaction from the criollos was immediate. Without measurable support from Spain, the regions leaders were able to defeat and force the British force to surrender, further emboldening the leaders of the colony and embittering them against a Spanish administration that just did not seem to care.

Another competitor was Portugal. The colossus of the Portuguese colony of Brazil would loom over the La Plata region. The Portuguese leaders in Rio de Janeiro were desirous of gaining a foothold at the mouth of the La Plata River to access the interior. Due to the geography of Brazil, accessing the interior of the colony was difficult over land. The Portuguese had eyes on the city of Montevideo. As Portugal was a British ally and Spain was a French ally, it was obvious that there would be fighting in the La Plata River valley.

Despite the known interest of other nations, Spain did little to invest in defense. As there were many problems elsewhere, and the low expectations of the colony in Madrid, the government in Madrid could do little and did less. The economy was underdeveloped despite the incredible agricultural potential of the area. Manioc, yerba mate, and livestock provided some income to the viceregal government. Shipping, when not cut off by the British Navy also contributed a large amount to the economy. La Plata was all potential and little realization under Spanish rule.

Pre-Revolutionary Situation

The strengthening of the American colonies economically and militarily was vital with the onset of the Napoleonic Wars. As colonies cut off by thousands of miles of ocean, the British were sure to target them, especially the wealthy Caribbean possessions. Spain could not afford to lose New Spain, and therefore used the viceregal military establishment to both keep the colony in line and keep the British out. Peru could not be easily targeted by the British due to its location on the Pacific coast. New Granada and La Plata were too underrated to warrant much investment. Although Spanish troops could not be spared to defend the colonies, officers from Spain could be sent to the Americas to help build and train armies. These men were expected to be loyal to the mother country and as Peninsulares, they would have every personal interest to maintain the colonial status quo.

Although troops could not be pulled out of the colony, money could. The Napoleonic Wars were incredibly expensive and Spain, which did not have the most efficient of administrations even after the Bourbon Reforms, needed every bit of money it could get its hands on. This only further emphasized that the colonies were there for extraction of wealth and little more. With the ideas of the enlightenment penetrating the colonies, the examples of the American and French Revolutions fresh in their minds, and a mother country distracted by the largest series of wars in Europe in 150 years, the people of Spanish America looked at their situation and questioned whether continued loyalty was worth it. All that was required was a spark.

What do you think of the four viceroyalties? Let us know below.

Now, read about Francisco Solano Lopez, the Paraguayan president who brought his country to military catastrophe in the War of the Triple Alliance here.

The Rule of Spain in the New World

By the latter half of the 17th century, the rule of Spain in the New World was reaching 200 years. Times were changing, both in the New World and in Europe, and the leaders of Spain knew it. Their problem was what to do about it. Spain had never had a coherent policy in its imperial rule. Since 1492, Spain was seemingly constantly at war, with an endless series of crises thrown into the mix. Solutions had to be found for the here and now, the future would take care of itself.

In this major series of articles Erick Reddington starts his look at the independence of Spanish America by considering how Spain ruled its vast American territories.

King Felipe V of Spain in the 1720s.

Spain was both blessed and cursed by its enormous New World Empire. Stretching (theoretically) from nearly the Arctic Circle to Tierra del Fuego, this was a land mass over 6,000 miles long. Contained within were millions of people, natives, slaves, and colonists. Wealth unimagined in 1491 was under the control of the Spanish. Every year, the West Indies Fleet, also called the Treasure Fleet, would cross the Atlantic and bring gold, silver, and raw materials to Spain. So much gold had crossed the Atlantic that it had caused runaway inflation several times. The Potosi mine in modern day Bolivia produced more silver than any other mine in history. Sugar and tobacco were grown throughout the Spanish Caribbean Basin. These consumer products were then exported for fabulous profits. Wool was grown and shipped to Catalonia for finishing in textile mills there.

These blessings show the problem with the Spanish view of their empire. Despite the incredible wealth and large population base, the empire was seen by Spanish authorities in Madrid as a cow to be milked, not as a flower to cultivate and help blossom. The empire existed to provide the government with mineral wealth and raw materials to fuel strength and power projection for Spain’s many foreign wars and domestic crises. There was little thought given to investing the vast amounts of New World wealth into improving Spanish infrastructure or national wealth. There was even less thought given to improving the empire except where it would lead to immediate increases in wealth extracted. All trade had to flow to Spain. Trade with any other country by the empire directly was forbidden. So many slaves needed to be imported because it was deemed cheaper to work them to death and buy new ones rather than care for them as human beings. Disease was so rampant amongst everyone in the empire that life seemed cheap and transitory; therefore, it was important to get what one could now, and tomorrow could take care of itself.

From Hapsburg to Bourbon

In 1700, the last Hapsburg king of Spain, Charles II, died. He willed his crown to the French Prince Phillippe of Anjou, who became King Filipe V. When Filipe went to Spain, he brought with him several advisors whom, he hoped, would help him make the Spanish Empire more efficient. What they found was appalling. The Spanish government was run by a series of nearly ad hoc committees, rather than government ministries, which was common throughout Western Europe. Tax collection was inefficient and corrupt. Overall corruption was so rampant that it was an expected supplement to meager and irregular salaries. Piracy was rampant. The colonial military was corrupt, untrained, poorly supplied, and totally incapable of all but the most basic of military needs. The French who had followed Filipe V to Spain knew the imperial structure was bad, but they had no idea how bad it really was. Things had to change. Spain’s empire was a giant with feet of clay.

Filipe V was prevented from making many major changes due to the War of Spanish Succession and the need to secure his right to the throne. Once the war was done, he and his successors would embark on a series of reforms lasting several decades with the intent of strengthening the empire before it was too late. Later called the Bourbon reforms, this was a drive to improve infrastructure, agriculture, commerce, and shipping in Spain itself and in the empire. The inefficiencies of the past were to be left behind, and the French mercantilist economic principles of Jean-Baptiste Colbert would strengthen Spain and bring back her glory.

Mercantilism Now!

Mercantilism as an economic theory was all the rage in the 18th century. The idea that national wealth could best be preserved through having a positive balance of foreign trade seemed obvious at the time. Imports were to be discouraged through high tariffs and domestic manufacturing. Exports were encouraged by the state to increase the flow of foreign wealth into the country. Domestic industry was to be encouraged through state subsidies and direct intervention in the economy by the state. Thus, the whole nation would be wealthy. This is an oversimplification, but for our purposes, this is the gist of what these economists wanted.

The wealth of the nation, or economic prosperity in modern parlance, was not the goal of mercantilism, at least for the Bourbon Reformers. National wealth was only a means to an end. Strengthening the state and providing the economic basis for the projection of power, both politically and economically, was the end goal. The reformers of the Bourbon dynasty saw that the Spanish Empire had all the elements needed for massive economic prosperity and national strength. There was little coherence in policy and strategy. Their brand of economic philosophy would change that in their view. It was the rational thing to do.

Rationalizing Government

The rational thing to do. Rationalism was all the rage in France in the 18th century. From society and the structure of the state to individuals and human relationships, everything in life could be reordered based upon the principles of rational thought. This movement was part of the enlightenment. Although many of the enlightenment tenets regarding freedom and secularism did not reach Spain along with the Reformers, many of the ideas of rationalism were imported from France. This is partially why the Reformers were so appalled at the inefficiencies of the Spanish imperial structure. The belief that people respond to logical, rational principles meant that the vast wealth of Spanish America could be harnessed if the right ideas were implemented. The first step was a rationalization of the law.

Law in the Spanish Empire was a dizzying layer upon layer of laws passed by the Cortés, royal decrees, decrees of the Council of the Indies, and local decisions made by administrators over the centuries. Jean de Orry, an advisor brought by Filipe V from France, focused on streamlining the tax collection system to reduce corruption and increase revenues flowing into the treasury. The position of Intendant was created on the French model. Intendants were appointed for every province to have a direct representative of royal power. Cardinal Alberoni, Orry’s successor neutered the Council of the Indies to eliminate a rival power source and reduce that body’s corruption. Within Spain itself, the ancient internal divisions amongst Castile, Aragon, and other sub-regions were eliminated, thereby spreading a financial burden which previously had only fallen on Castile.

One area of primary importance was rationalizing trade. As good mercantilists, increasing the amount of legal trade was of the utmost importance. This meant, of course, eliminating illegal trade. Since regulating hundreds or thousands of small firms was difficult, granting large-scale, sweeping monopolies not only would help streamline regulation, but it would also give the powerful monopoly holders an enormous incentive help the government stamp out illegal trade and endemic piracy. These monopolies would, in time, grow into large corrupt organizations themselves, which would fuel a large amount of colonial dissatisfaction, but this would be in the future.

Military reform was also on the Reformer’s agenda. This would be one of their biggest failures. The military establishments in the colonies were embarrassments. Even in Europe, military service attracted only the most desperate. Few were willing to accept poor pay, brutal discipline, and the prospect of death unless there was no other choice. In the empire, where the lowest classes were tied to the land through slavery or the hacienda system, and other classes had economic opportunities, the talent pool to recruit from was shallow at best. Spanish-born officers sent to the Americas, called Peninsulares, were hostile and dismissive to those born in the New World. The Criollos, those of Spanish descent in the Americas resented the hostility of their social betters. Since Peninsulares made up the highest ranks of the military while Criollos were the junior officers, this was a mix for disaster. This racial tension led to another problem.

Racial Caste System

In Spanish America, race was a much different concept than it is in the 21st century. Within the empire, there was a mix of peoples. Native Americans were the original inhabitants. Thousands of tribes spread over thousands of miles each with their own language and culture. Their numbers were reduced dramatically by the introduction of European diseases after first contact. Population was further reduced by the heavy-handed attempts at enslavement. Throughout the empire, there were constant battles with the natives, with small scale raids common. Tribes from the outskirts of New Spain such as the Pueblo to the Araucanians in the southern Andes provided a source of trade and converts as well as allies against other tribes. Relations with the tribes was complex and difficult at the best of times.

With the failure of attempts to mass enslave the Native Americans, another labor source needed to be found. Sugar, the primary agricultural source of wealth, and mining are very labor intensive. There were not enough colonists to do the work, so the Spanish as well as the other colonial nations, began importing Africans to work the plantations and the mines. Slaves were captured along the coast of Africa from what were called factories or purchased from African tribes willing to work with the colonial powers. After being processed, they were packed aboard ship and sent to the New World in appalling conditions along what was later termed the Middle Passage. Since the cost of slaves was so low, it was in many cases cheaper to import more slaves than provide care to those already purchased. This exploitation of an entire people would have consequences up to the present day. Fears of slave rebellion would influence Spanish law and military policy. The monopoly on the slave trade, the asiento, was a major source of resentment by those who lived in Spanish America and was also a diplomatic chip the Spanish used in influencing foreign policy decisions. No one asked the slaves what their opinion was of the asiento.

Spanish attitudes toward racial mixing were not strict. Since most of the colonists who came to the New World were male, there was a shortage marriage partners for these men. Since nature will always find a way, very quickly a new racial group arose, called mestizos. Mestizos were multi-racial people descended from a mix of Spanish, Native American, and/or African parentage. Existing in a place above Natives and slaves, the Mestizos occupied a strange place in colonial society. They were free people in the legal sense of the term, but they faced a great deal of racial discrimination due to their mixed parentage.

Above the Mestizos were the Criollos. These were people who saw themselves as “pure” Spanish but were born in the Americas. Over time, these people came to accept many of the tenets of the enlightenment and believed that they should have the same rights and privileges as Spanish-born Peninsulares. Although legal restrictions on Criollos were few, the growing resentments of this class caused these few restrictions to be blown up into some of the major issues that would lead to the later revolutions.

At the top of the heap were the Peninsulares. They were Spanish-born and therefore saw themselves as the natural leaders of Spanish America. Usually they were wealthy landowners, military officers, or government officials. Many had no intention of making the New World their permanent home. They were in the Americas to make their mark or build their fortune, then retire back in Spain. The haughty attitudes and entitled place in society caused resentment among all the other classes.

Effects of the Reforms

The Bourbon Reforms were a mixed bag. The mainstream view that the reforms were a direct cause of the later revolutions. The reforms while good intentioned, had the effect of preventing the development of the colonies economically and politically for the benefit of Spain proper. The resentment the reforms engendered, together with the racial resentments against the Peninsulares, led to revolution. This ignores the other social and political events happening in Spanish America and the world as a whole.

By the end of the 18th century, the French Revolution had taken the principles of the Enlightenment and attempted to put them into action. Rhetoric about the freedom of peoples and the rights of man exploded out of France and arrived on the shores of the Spanish Empire. The American Revolution provided inspiration to many in the New World. It also stoked fears in the Spanish colonial authorities that the events of Saratoga and Yorktown could be repeated.

New ideas, wars, revolutions, and economic changes would all combine to make the Spanish colonial situation a volcano ready to explode. To understand fully why, it is important to look at the individual colonies. Next time, as a prelude to the Wars of Independence, we will take a tour of Spanish America and the four Viceroyalties that governed the empire. Each one had their own unique conditions, peoples, cultures, and reasons for discontent.

What do you think of Spanish America? Let us know below.

Now, read about Francisco Solano Lopez, the Paraguayan president who brought his country to military catastrophe in the War of the Triple Alliance here.