Robert Todd Lincoln and the Curse of the Presidential Assassination

Robert Todd Lincoln (1843-1926) was the son of Abraham Lincoln and an influential figure in his time. He was also near the scene at the time of three US presidential assassinations spanning over 35 years. Samantha Arrowsmith explains.

A young Robert Todd Lincoln.

There are some figures in history that transcend their time, even if we are sometimes largely ignorant of why it is that we remember them. Cleopatra, Alexander the Great, Genghis Khan, Napoleon, Abraham Lincoln, Einstein and Hitler are all names that echo down the ages, for good or ill, and who even the most history-phobic of us will recognize.

To be the child of one of these would not have been an easy place to occupy, and Robert Todd Lincoln bore the weight of that position for most of his life. He is remembered as an ‘unsympathetic bore[i]’, tainted by his relationship with his successful father and his mentally ill mother[ii]. Yet Robert carried another burden: if such a thing as a curse exists, then Robert was encumbered by one of the worst – the curse of the presidential assassination.

Abraham Lincoln: April 15, 1865

Robert’s first encounter with a presidential assassination was that of his own father, Abraham Lincoln, 16th President of the United States. It was an event touched by coincidence and regret, and one which had a profound effect on his eldest son.

Robert’s relationship with his father is considered by many historians to have been strained[iii]. As the son of an aspiring politician, Robert rarely saw his father during his childhood and their bond was undoubtedly weaker than the one Abraham had with his other sons. Yet it would be overstating their difficulties to say that Robert was estranged from his father; on the day of the assassination they had spent several hours alone together before the President went to a cabinet meeting.[iv] That evening he and his parents had dined together at the White House and he remembered some years later how his father had asked him to come to the Ford Theatre with them. Not attending was one of his greatest regrets[v]. In a 1921 article based on the recollections of Robert to a friend, he believed that:

“My seat must have been placed in the door alcove…which was covered with a curtain…He [Booth] would have encountered a psychological obstacle.…To open the door and fire at an unsuspecting man is one thing, but to fire after he had found his way blocked is another. I do not believe that he would have attempted it if I had been there.”[vi]

Despite being shot in the head by John Wilkes Booth, the President was not killed instantly and was carried to a house belonging to William Petersen where he died at 7:22am the next morning with Robert at his bedside. Despite his previous stoic behavior, The Secretary to the Navy noted that he ‘gave way on two occasions to overpowering grief and sobbed aloud…’[vii].

The event affected Robert not only as a son but also as a future government official, and one letter in particular shows how he was still conscious of the danger to the incumbent president 24 years later:

‘I have no doubt that President Arthur will take care of himself; but he is undoubtedly liable to be killed by some crazy person or by a fanatic who would be willing to do the deed for the notoriety which might be gained thereby.’[viii]

In an ironic twist of fate, Abraham Lincoln had previously had a great deal to be grateful to the Booth family for. His killer’s elder brother, the celebrated actor Edwin Booth, had saved Robert from possible injury or even death at New Jersey train station in either 1863 or 1864. Horrified by his brother’s actions, it gave Edwin comfort to know that he had been of some benefit to the Lincoln family and Robert was able to talk about the incident without any bitterness, recalling in 1918 that ‘I never again met Mr. Booth personally, but I have always had most grateful recollection of his prompt action on my behalf’.[ix]

James Garfield: September 19, 1881

Four months into his presidency, James Garfield advertised his intended plan to move to New Jersey for the summer. He would take the train from Washington’s Baltimore and Potomac railroad station on July 2, 1881 and among the members of his cabinet there to see him off would be his Secretary of War, Robert Todd Lincoln.

Up until that point the only President to have been assassinated was Lincoln’s father, so an attempt on the President was considered both a rare and somewhat unlikely event. James Garfield believed that the President should be seen by the people and he therefore took few precautions when in public. He had once written:

‘The letter of Mr. Hudson of Detroit, with your endorsement came duly to hand. I do not think there is any serious danger in the direction to which he refers - though I am receiving, what I suppose to be the usual number of threatening letters on that subject. Assassination can no more be guarded against than death by lightning; and it is not best to worry about either.’[x]

Unfortunately, Charles Guiteau had decided that the President’s death was a political necessity. His initial anger at being overlooked for a diplomatic position in Paris (which he had convinced himself was his right due to a speech he had written in support of Garfield during the election) gradually turned to paranoia. He was convinced that Garfield disliked him due to his allegiance to the Stalwart faction of the Republican Party and eventually that Garfield was a traitor and dictator.[xi] He wasn’t subtle in his intentions, going so far as to send the President letters and asking for a tour of the prison where he believed he would be incarcerated after the event.[xii] A letter taken from his pocket read:

‘The President’s tragic death was a sad necessity, but it will unite the Republican Party and save the Republic…I had no ill-will toward the President. His death was a political necessity.’[xiii]

Robert Lincoln had come to the station to let the President know that he was unable to join him on the trip as originally planned, but what he witnessed must have brought back terrible memories. Reportedly only 40 feet away from the President, he watched Guiteau step out of the shadows, walk up to the President and fire two shots, one to the arm and the other to the back. As with his father’s shooting, he showed some elements of calmness, attending the fallen President, calling for a gunshot wound specialist, Dry Bliss, and putting soldiers onto the streets to ensure calm.[xiv]

As with President Lincoln, Garfield did not die immediately; in fact, it took 80 days for him to succumb, not to the gunshot wound, but to the septicemia caused by his doctors. In September 1881, Robert Todd Lincoln attended a second funeral of an assassinated president.[xv]

William McKinley: September 14, 1901

The Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo was intended to showcase American achievement with the slogan ‘commercial wellbeing and good understanding among the American Republics’[xvi]. President William McKinley, six months into his second term as the 25th President, was attending as part of his American tour. He was a popular president and the speech he gave there on September 5 was attended by a vast audience[xvii]. The next day, he toured Niagara Falls before returning to the fair for a public reception at the Temple of Music. McKinley enjoyed meeting the public and despite Secretary Cortelyou’s reservations, he was determined to attend, putting the reception back onto his schedule every time it was removed. Cortelyourelented but ensured that there would be ample security at the venue: the President’s own protection officer, George Foster, plus two other Secret Service Agents, the Exposition police, four Buffalo detectives and a dozen artillerymen[xviii]. But the precautions were to no avail. The day was hot and the usual precaution that everyone in the line should approach the President empty handed was abandoned, along with the habit that Foster should stand beside the President. By the time Foster realized that the approaching man, with his hand covered by a handkerchief[xix], was a danger, it was too late and at 4:07pm unemployed factory worker turned political anarchist, Leon Czolgosz, shot McKinley twice in the abdomen.

A few hours later Robert Todd Lincoln stepped off of a train at Buffalo station on his way to the Exposition to be greeted by a telegram reading:

“President McKinley was shot down by an anarchist in Buffalo this afternoon. He was hit twice in the abdomen. Condition serious.”[xx]

Lincoln missed the actual moment of the shooting, but he immediately went to see the President and spent some time with him that evening and again two days later. Lincoln believed that the President was remarkably well given what had happened to him, but eight days later on September 14, McKinley died of gangrene. 

The event could only have brought back more memories for Lincoln and he did not disguise his sadness when he wrote to the new President, Theodore Roosevelt:

“I do not congratulate you, for I have seen too much of the seamy side of the Presidential Robe to think of it as an enviable garment.”[xxi]

A Certain Fatality

When Robert Lincoln died in 1926, there had been three presidential assassinations and he had a connection to them all. As historian Todd Arrington has observed, that might not have been unusual for a man involved in politics as Lincoln was[xxii], but, on a personal level, it must have been a painful situation.  

‘There is a certain fatality about presidential functions when I am present,’ Lincoln is supposed to have quipped. Perhaps the more telling quote is the one he gave to the New York Times the day after the shooting of James Garfield in Washington: ‘How many hours of sorrow I have passed in this town.’[xxiii].

 

What do you think of Robert Todd Lincoln? Let us know below.

Now, you can read Samantha Arrowsmith’s article on 7 occasions Europe changed the time here.

[i] Lincoln: A Foreigner’s Quest, Jan Morris, 2001, p128 

[ii] Meet Robert Todd Lincoln, The Estranged Son of the 16th President who had his mother committed, Lauren Zmirich, 2019 

[iii] Lincoln’s Boys: The legacy of an American father and an American family, Robert P Watson and Dale Berger, 2010

[iv] Giant in the Shadows: The life of Robert T Lincoln, Jason Emerson, 2012, p99 

[v] Emerson, p107

[vi] The Lincoln Financial Foundation Collection

[vii] Emerson, p105

[viii] Letter from Robert Lincoln 28 September 1881

[ix] How Edwin Booth Saved Robert Todd Lincoln’s Life, Jason Emerson, 2005

[x] Letter from President Garfield to Sherman, November 1880

[xi] Killing the President: assassinations, attempts and rumored attempts on US Commanders-in-Chief, Willard M Oliver and Nancy E Marion, 2010, p44

[xii] Oliver and Marion, p44

[xiii] The New York Times 3 July 1881

[xiv] ‘A Certain Fatality’ Robert Todd Lincoln and the Presidential Assassinations, Todd Arrington, 2014

[xv] Funeral of President Garfield: Announcement to the Public

[xvi] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-American_Exposition

[xvii] You can view the President giving the speech at https://www.loc.gov/item/00694342/  

[xviii] JFK assassination records: Appendix 7: a brief history of presidential protection

[xix] The New York Times 7 September 1901

[xx] Arrington, 2014

[xxi] Ford’s Theatre National Historic Site

[xxii] Arrington, 2014

[xxiii] Arrington, 2014

Ancestor Worship in Ancient China

Ancestor worship has a long history in China. In fact it goes back millennia to the time of Yangshao culture. Here, Khadija Tauseef explains the importance of this and how it evolved over time in ancient China.

Confucius, painted by Wu Daozi.

“Ancestors

Hear my plea,

Help me not to make a fool of me,

And to not uproot my family tree,

Keep my father standing tall”

 - An extract from the movie, Mulan.

The Disney classic allows us a glimpse into the tradition of ancestor worship that has been around for centuries. Mulan’s father is seen sitting before the ancestral tablets, praying for Mulan. Throughout the film there are continuous references to the Fa ancestors, who even appear; showing that they are watching over Mulan and her family. They try to help their descendants, ensuring that no dishonor was brought on to the family. 

China has a grand tradition of ancestral worship that has been carried forward through the ages. However, the term ‘ancestor worship’ was coined by a British philosopher and sociologist Herbert Spencer in 1885. It is based on the belief that the souls of the deceased have power and influence of the lives of the living. How did this ancient practice start and what sort of an impact does it have on the people?

Celestial Beginnings

The concept of ancestor worship can find its roots within Chinese folk tradition. It emerged from religious beliefs about the afterlife and that part of the soul continues to reside on the earth. The earliest mention regarding ancestor worship dates from Yangshao society (from c. 5000 BCE). Unfortunately, due to the lack of writing from the period, we do not know much about Neolithic religious practices. All that changed with the coming of the Shang dynasty (1600-1046 BCE), who brought about the existence of writing. Oracle bones or jiaguwen discovered in archaeological tombs, date as far back as 1250 BCE, giving us our first glimpse into ancient beliefs. 

The major focus of the Shang was towards the Shangdi (the Supreme Being), who was believed to be the link between the heavenly beings and the people. At the time ancestor worship also existed; many believed that the success of crops and the health of the family was connected to the veneration of ancestors. If the ancestors were happy then they would provide their family with wealth and prosperity. However, if they were displeased then great tragedies would befall the family. In addition, it was widely believed that the ancestors visited with Shangdi, therefore it became even more important to make sure the deceased were happy.

Dynasty Shift

The Shang were soon replaced by the Zhou dynasty, one of China’s longest lasting ancient dynasties. Lasting from 1046 BCE to 256 BCE, this dynasty played host to a great cultural, artistic and intellectual renaissance. During this period the concept of Yin (feminine) and Yang (masculine) was developed as “an earthly reflection of heavenly harmony”. This concept helped develop the idea of ancestral worship further by helping explain how the soul of the deceased is affected. 

The belief was that the soul of every human consists of two parts, the Po (relating to yin energy and the grave) and the Hun (relating to yang energy and ancestral tablets). Therefore, when a person dies, their soul would be split in two - the Po goes to the afterlife to be reborn and the Hun remains on earth, close to the ancestral tablet. This shows why many believe that the ancestors remain among the living and keep a watch on them - if the family honors them and provides them with appropriate sacrifices the family will have a prosperous and wealthy life. Festivals were often held to celebrate not just the gods but also the ancestors. The people would perform rituals in which they would recite hymns, glorifying the gods and ancestors. 

“The drums are put in place, and their beats summon the spirits. The descendants call upon their ancestors to arrive, the sound of flutes and stone chimes adding to the noise, until “bells and drums fill the air / and the dancers seem in flight / our visitors appear.”” (Clements, 2019: 43).

These celebrations were often led by the shamans or wu. Shamans were thought of as a conduit for communicating with the ancestors. They conducted the funerary ceremonies and other events that required their presence. 

Unfortunately, not all those who die are able to take their place among the pantheon of ancestors. According to ancient texts each human has their own predestined span of life and dying before that time as a result of murder, war, suicide, a natural disaster or an epidemic, means they cannot become ancestors. These souls returned to haunt the living, and were known as Ligui (pernicious ghost). These Ligui were believed to be the cause of numerous illnesses and misfortunes. The only way to deal with them was through exorcisms performed by shamans.

Throughout the Zhou dynasty, ancestors were highly revered, not just among the common people. Even the emperors built grand shrines for their royal ancestors, ensuring that they would watch over them from the heavens and secure their reigns. 

Confucian Influence

After the decline of the Zhou dynasty, many religious practices came under attack. China was divided, with warring states fighting to exert dominance. It was in this age of violence and war that Confucius was born. In order to find a solution for the turmoil of his age, Confucius looked to the practices and knowledge of the past. In particular, he looked to the era of the early Zhou kings and their peaceful rule. 

Confucius found that Zhou society had ancient rights, customs and etiquette that brought people together and ensured peace. Therefore, Confucius wanted to bring back these practices so that the people would be able to live harmoniously. One important right was the ancestral rights that were necessary for keeping harmony between the human world and the cosmos.

Professor Michael Nylan explains the importance of the ancestors thus:

“When we talk about many of the rights, what we are talking about is ‘blood sacrifice’. Offerings of blood and wine are offered to the ancestors and the gods in heaven. The ancestors live in heaven and become themselves gods in the afterlife.”

The reimagining of the ancestors in a sense brings them back to life with each offering. Confucius emphasizes the importance of family and the connection to the past, and this helps embody the belief in the ancestors - because honoring them helps us maintain a connection with relatives or loved ones that have passed on and keeps us rooted in the past. Confucius’ teaching greatly influenced the people of China and heralded a new era of ancestor worship that has lasted to this day.

Conclusion

Even today, people have tablets dedicated to their deceased relatives and provide offerings to sustain them. Some of these practices may seem outdated and out of place within our modern life but if one feels connected with the past and carries it with them, then these traditions will continue to flourish. Personally, just the thought of having a loved one close by and being able to share precious moments with them, sounds like a perfect dream.

What do think of ancestor worship in China? Let us know below.

Bibliography

1)     Gombrich, E.R. A little History of the World. Yale University Press: London, 2005.

2)     Oliveto, Joe. Chinese Ancestor Worship Explained: History, Traditions & More. https://www.joincake.com/blog/chinese-ancestor-worship/

3)     Cartwright, Mark. Ancestor Worship in Ancient China. https://member.ancient.eu/article/1132/ancestor-worship-in-ancient-china/

4)     Clements, Jonathan. A Brief History of China. Tuttle Publishing: Singapore, 2019. 

5)     Ancestor Worship. https://family.jrank.org/pages/86/Ancestor-Worship.html

6)     Ancestral Worship in China. https://family.jrank.org/pages/84/Ancestor-Worship-Ancestor-Worship-in-China.html

7)     Ghosts in Chinese Religion. http://www.religionfacts.com/chinese-religion/ghosts

8)     Lagerwey, John and Marc Kalinowski. Early Chinese Religion Part One: Shang through Han (1250BCE – 220AD). Brill Publishing; Netherlands, 2008. 

America’s 1957 Civil Rights Act: Modern Reconstruction?

The 1957 Civil Rights Act in the US is often seen as not being a great success. However, here James Hernandez argues that the Act was very important as it led the way to the greater changes of the 1960s and beyond - it could even be seen as the start of ‘Modern Reconstruction’.

Lyndon B. Johnson (left) and Richard Russell (right) in 1963. The two Democrats were on opposing sides in the argument around the 1957 Civil Rights Act.

Arguably the fountainhead for the modern civil rights movement, the 1957 Civil Rights Act is seemingly excluded from its rightful place in mainstream history as it never fully delivered its promised potential. But nonetheless, the legislation should be celebrated for its symbolic significance as it demonstrated a growing acceptance towards the Civil Rights Movement and the federal government’s willingness to intervene with state governments to ensure African-Americans were provided with equal extents of the law. As the advancement of Civil Rights remains pertinent in American society today, the beginning of what will soon be widely recognized as Modern Reconstruction originates from the forgotten act as it established the fundamental basis for African-American voter protection and influenced the creation of President Johnson’s landmark Civil Rights agenda. 

1950s America

America was in dire need of a societal evaluation as the country fell deeper into the polarizing void that divided the nation over the issue of segregation during the 1950s. The claimed “free world” of the United States was contradicted by racial injustices present in the nation and was heavily criticized by the Eastern Bloc in the Cold War. Despite Brown v. Board delivering a much needed ruling in favor of desegregation and generating invaluable optimism to what would become the Civil Rights Movement, the new legislation was not strong enough to supersede the actions of pro-segregationist state governments that worked to uphold de facto segregation practices within the capacity of state law. The South became the epicenter for racial conflict as Southern Dixiecrats continually condoned the violent behavior of white segregationists. President Eisenhower soon recognized the growing division of the country and finally decided to put his foot down on the issue along with the help of Attorney General Herbert Brownell.

President Eisenhower’s powerful commitment to social justice played a key role in influencing and supporting Brownell’s legislative proposal that was soon introduced in the House on March 11, 1956 (H.R. 6127). The proposed law aimed to extend the security of African-American voting rights under the 15th Amendment as only 20% of the population was registered to vote as discriminatory provisions such as literacy tests were still ubiquitous in the South. Other key components included the implementation of a Civil Rights Commission to further analyze investigations regarding the denial of rights to minorities, the creation of an assistant attorney general position specifically to aid civil rights in the Department of Justice, the expansion of federal authority to interfere with state laws to ensure equal rights were being properly secured by states, and the enactment of further provisions that would protect African-Americans from unfair circumstances in court.

Lyndon B. Johnson’s role

Though the bill had received support from both parties, the passage of the proposed legislation carried the divisive potential to tear apart the Democratic Party. The legislation found an unlikely supporter in Senate Majority Leader Lyndon B. Johnson as he chose to lead passage efforts to maintain stability within his party and to garner support for his future presidential campaign. Johnson’s support was quite surprising considering the fact that he had voted against civil rights legislation only a year before. Whether he truly had a change of heart regarding the issue or if his intentions were really to advance his political career, Johnson would go on to champion civil rights in his future presidency.

Senator Richard Russell of Georgia led Southern Democratic opposition to the legislation as Johnson gained momentum. Russell famously claimed that the bill would create “unspeakable confusion, bitterness and bloodshed in a great section of our common country” and was essentially “a potential instrument of tyranny and persecution” when referring to Part III of the bill which looked to extend federal authority. Russell cited a parallel between the proposition and the failed Civil Rights Act of 1866 which authorized the federal government’s usage of armed forces in order to ensure the implementation of civil rights provisions, further insinuating the likelihood of violence occurring if the bill was enacted. Russell’s efforts proved effective as Johnson soon surrendered all hope of including an extension of federal powers in the bill. In spite of facing substantial revisions, and a record setting single-person filibuster by Dixiecrat Strom Thurmond, the act was finally signed into law by Eisenhower on September 9, 1957.

In perspective

The 1957 Civil Rights Act was nowhere near as effective as subsequent legislation but the newly created bill was a promising stepping-stone. It was the first civil rights legislation put into law since Reconstruction and it set the stage for what would soon become one of the most influential reform eras in history - the 1960s. Despite historians citing the bill as a failure, the act should be recognized as the official beginning of the modern Civil Rights Movement. The movement would not have properly progressed without the federal embracement achieved through the 1957 act and further racial oppression would have resulted. If it were not for Martin Luther King Jr.’s untimely assassination, Johnson’s unexpected decision to not seek re-election, and the government diverting a large portion of their attention towards the escalating tensions of the Vietnam War in 1968, the Civil Rights Movement would have greatly progressed through the 1970s and 1980s and racial equality would have been more widely prevalent. Moreover, the Civil Rights Act of 1957 would have inevitably fulfilled its potential and obtained its rightful place in American history.

What do you think of the 1957 Civil Rights Act? Let us know below.

How did we get Modern Comic Book Characters? The Story of Dick Tracy and the Shadow

Many of the most successful movies each year are based on comic book characters, such as Superman and Batman. But what was the influence for modern comic book characters? Here, Daniel Boustead explains how it was the influence of the pioneering characters of Dick Tracy and the Shadow.

Promotional Image for the CBS Radio series The Detective Story Hour. The program included the Shadow.

The Comic and Pulp Magazine characters in the 1920s were stale and lacked depth. The Shadow, which was first a radio show, then a Pulp Magazine Novels star helped introduce innovations that are still found in comics to this day. The Dick Tracy comics also provided succeeding comics with some important literary character traits. The pioneering work of Dick Tracy and the Shadow creators would influence the work of Detective Comics (DC) and Marvel Comics. Dick Tracy and the Shadow were the epitome of comics because they served as the catalyst and provided the parameters for so many comics to follow.

Comics in the 1920s

Zorro, which was created by Johnston McCulley for pulp magazine’s All-Story Weekly in August of 1919, followed the same plot, literary, character conventions, and character traits of the swashbuckling heroes of old like Robin Hood, Don Quixote, Scarlet Pimpernel, The Three Musketeers, and Cyrano de Bergerac([1]). The literary trope of a superhero leading a double life was established first in 1905 in the book The Scarlet Pimpernel, which was based off a 1903 play of that same name (9). Science Fiction character Buck Rogers, which was created by Phillip Francis Nowlan in August 1928 for pulp magazine Amazing Stories, followed the same literary, character, and plot devices that were found in works such as those by Jules Verne, Edgar Rice Rice Burroughs, and H.G. Wells ([2]). The big comic star of the day, Popeye the Sailor Man, which was created by E.C. Segar, and first appeared in the newspaper comics on January 17, 1929 was largely a cutesy, silly and innocent work ([3]). Had Dick Tracy and the Shadow not been created there would not be the comic book fan conventions, movies and multi million industry that we see now.

The Shadow

Dick Tracy and the Shadow introduced three important elements that are found in superhero comic book characters right to this day: sometimes superpowers, graphic violence, and grotesque villains.  This was not previously seen in Zorro, Buck Rogers, or Popeye. Also, these three elements (more often than not) dealt with earth-based subjects rather than what Buck Rogers’ interplanetary adventures covered.

The Shadow’s unique legacy in the history of comics is critical to understanding the development of comic characters to follow. The Shadow first appeared on the radio on August 2, 1930 on a program called Detective Story Hour and then appeared in pulp story magazine novel form in April 1931, with the very first story issue entitled The Living Shadow (4). This was written by Walter B. Gibson, who would use the pen name Maxwell Grant ([4]). In print, film, and radio, the Shadow’s consistent superpower is a master of disguise and stealth ([5]). In 1937 in the Shadow Radio Show (during its fourth season), the Shadow was given the power to “cloud men’s minds so they cannot see him” ([6]). The exact date the Shadow was given this superpower was September 26, 1937 (5).  In contrast, in pulp magazine’s novels the Shadow gets out of dangers by using his stealth, his .45 Caliber Pistols, and the occasional magic trick (6). In the radio version, his power to “cloud men’s minds so they cannot see him”, allows him to hypnotize people instantly so that he can move as an invisible shadow. The Shadow (in the radio version) can hypnotize people so they can forget things, and he can command them to perform certain acts. The Shadow used this power to force a criminal to write a detailed account of his past crimes. He accomplishes this task by using a fire opal ring known as a girasol (7). This enables him to focus his hypnotic abilities ([7]). The radio show Shadow’s introduction of his superpower in 1937 predated Superman, and in turn influenced the rise of Superman, who would first appear in comics on April 18, 1938([8]).

The Shadow radio show and pulp magazine novels also had graphic violence. The November, 1931 Shadow pulp magazine novel issue entitled “The Red Menace” contained a masked villain called The Red Envoy, who murdered everyone in his path to get secret plans for an aerial torpedo, before he is defeated by the Shadow (4). In one of the novels the villains used a device called the “Silent Death” which was an electric ray machine that could deal death on a massive scale (4). In the Shadow radio show entitled “Death from the Deep” (from 1937 to 1938 summer seasons) a villain named Vinton shoots around the inside of a Submarine thinking he has killed the Shadow but has no success because the Shadow is invisible (10).  The level of violence in the Shadow would influence future superhero comics to come.

Dick Tracy

Dick Tracy did not have any superpowers, but he was a master detective in the style of Sherlock Homes. Dick Tracy was created by Chester Gould and first appeared in the comic section of the Detroit newspaper Sunday Mirror on October 4, 1931 (11). 

The world of Dick Tracy was filled with graphic violence.  In the October 17, 1931 issue of Dick Tracy, Big Boy’s minions killed Dick Tracy’s girlfriend Tess Truehart’s father, Emil Truehart, in front of Dick Tracy and Tess Truehart during a robbery at the Truehart residence (12).  In 1934, villain Doc Hump experimented on humans and dogs by injecting them with rabies (13).  In the November 11, 1934 issue the villain Doc Hump planned to unleash a dog on a captured Dick Tracy only to have the dog turn on him (13). He tears his throat out, killing him instantly (13). On the May 21, 1935 issue Dick Tracy uses a hose to pump car exhaust fumes into a cave in order to flush out villains Cutie Diamond, Zora Arson, and her brother Boris Arson (14). Cutie Diamond and Zora Arson run out of the cave with their guns blazing - to which Dick Tracy and his partners killed them (14). Boris Arson hid in the cave behind a wall of stone and mud until Dick Tracy fired a machine gun into a hole in the cave where Boris Arson was, and the bullet caused a fatal wound in his bullet proof jacket, which killed him (14). In 1936, Chester Gould introduced the costumed criminals the Purple Cross Gang who committed many murders (15).  In 1937, the character of the Blank (real name Frank Redrum), whose face was shot off earlier, was cruel to criminals who rejected him simply because he was too ugly (15). The Blank would murder those that got in his way, tying criminals under a car so that they would die from carbon monoxide poisoning and throwing criminals out of a car going 50 miles per hour (15).  He also threw criminals out of an airplane while he laughed manically at their suffering and death as they crashed through a barn (15). 

Villains

The universe of Dick Tracy also had many grotesque villains. On February 25, 1932 the Dick Tracy comics introduced the disfigured villain of Broadway Bates with his pointed nose (16). The character would influence Batman’s the Penguin which first appeared in Batman comics in December 1941 (17). On May 7, 1934 Dick Tracy comics introduced the frightening character named Doc Hump (13). Doc Hump had a bald, humped shaped head and was an evil mad scientist who would influence the design of famous Superman villain Lex Luthor (15). Lex Luthor would first appear in the Superman comics in April, 1940 (18). On October 21, 1937 Dick Tracy comics introduced the first repulsive villain known as the Blank, because he had a semi-opaque cheesecloth to cover his face (19).  The Blank’s countenance would influence Batman super-villain Dr. Death, who would appear in the Batman comics in July 1939 (20). The Blank’s grotesque appearance would also influence the most famous Batman villain of all, the Joker, which first appeared in the Batman comics in April 1940(21). Dick Tracy’s villains influenced other comic writers to create their villains to look grotesque because it was artistically viable and commercially successful.

Legacy

On March 30th, 1939 Batman hit the newsstands, and it was heavily influenced by Dick Tracy and the Shadow (22). Batman co-creator Bill Finger said: “My first script was a take-off on a Shadow Story. I patterned my style of writing Batman after the Shadow” (23). On October 14, 1941 William Moulton Marston’s DC comic character Wonder Women appeared, which had plenty of graphic violence and grotesque villains (24).  Marvel Comic’s Spider Man hit the newsstands in August 1962 and was heavily influenced by Dick Tracy and the Shadow’s graphic violence and grotesque villains (25). In Spiderman, there is an ugly villain named the Chameleon (26).  The X-Men were also swayed by the legacy of Dick Tracy and the Shadow when it hit the newsstands in September 1963 (27). Magneto (appearing in X-Men) was very menacing in his appearance (28). 

The comics and pulp characters were old and hackneyed in the 1920s. The important innovations of the Shadow Radio Show and the Shadow Pulp Magazine Novels left a lasting legacy on comics.  The innovations of Dick Tracy also left a profound effect on comics as well. Dick Tracy and the Shadow would have a lasting legacy on D.C. Comics and Marvels Comics, and so many others to come. Dick Tracy and the Shadow were the comics to end all comics. 

What do you think of Dick Tracy and the Shadow? Let us know below.

Now you can read Daniel’s past article on whether World War Two Japanese Kamikaze attacks had more impact than Nazi V-2 rockets here.

[1] Zorro. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zorro. 

[2] Buck Rodgers. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buck_Rodgers 

[3] “Explore the History of Popeye”. https://popeye.com.  Accessed on October 23rd, 2020. http://popeye.com/timeline/

[4] Holt, Keith and Severin, Todd D. “The Shadow Mysterious Being of the Night”. The Shadow: Master of Darkness. October 23rd, 2020. https://www.shadowsanctum.net/history/articles/The_Shadow_Pulp_Years-Severin_Holt2.html . 

[5] The Shadow. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Shadow . 

[6] “Radio History of the Shadow”. The Shadow: Master of Darkness. October 23rd, 2020. https://www.shadowsanctum.net/radio/radio.html . 

[7] “The Shadow”. www.internationalhero.co.uk. October 23rd, 2020. https://www.internationalhero.co.uk/s/shadpulp.htm . 

[8] Superman. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superman

9 The Scarlet Pimpernel. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Scarlet_Pimpernel.

10 “Death from the Deep”. The Shadow: Master of Darkness. November 16th, 2020. https://www.shadowsanctum.net/radio/synopsis/ss-2.html

11 “Timeline-The Chester Gould Dick Tracy Museum”. The Dick Tracy Museum. November 9th,2020. https://www.dicktracymuseum.com/timeline-1 . 

12 Emil Truehart. https://dicktracy.fandom.com/wiki/Emil_Truehart . 

13 Doc Hump. https://dicktracy.fandom.com/wiki/Doc_Hump . 

14 Boris Arson. https://dickracy.fandom.com/wiki/Boris_Arson . 

15 Grand, Alex. “Chester Gould’s Dick Tracy and his 1930’s Era War on Crime”. Last Modified April 25th, 2020. Comic Book Historians. Accessed on November 15th, 2020. https://comicbookhistorians.com/dick-tracy-1930s-comic-milestones . 

16 Broadway Bates. https://dicktracy.fandom.com/wiki/Broadway_Bates . 

17 Penguin (Character). https://en.wikipedia.org/wikipedia/Penguin_(character)

18 Lex Luthor. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lex_Luthor . 

19 The Blank. https://dicktracy.fandom.com/wiki/The_Blank . 

20 Doctor Death. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctor_Death_(character) . 

21 Joker (character). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joker_(character) . 

22 Batman. https://en.wikipedia.org/wikipedia/Batman .

23 Severin, Todd D. “The Shadow Strange Creature in Black the Comic Book Years”. The Shadow Master of Darkness. November 19th, 2020. https://www.sahdowsanctum.net/history/articles/The_Shadow_Comic_Years-Severin.html . 

24 Wonder Women. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wonder-Women . 

25 Spider-Man. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spider-Man.

26 Chameleon (Marvel Comics). https://en.wikpedia.org/wiki/Chamelon (Marvel Comics). 

27 X-Men. https://en.wikipeida.org/wiki/X-Men . 

28 Magneto (Marvel Comics). https://en.wikipedia/org/wiki/Magneto_(Marvel Comics). 

A Brief History of New England

New England refers to the group of six states that together comprise the northeast region of the United States - Massachusetts, Maine, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New Hampshire, and Vermont. Here, Douglas Reid tells us about the region and these six states.

Autumn in New England by Maurice Prendergast, early 20th century.

Nunquam libertas gratior extat.

 - Never has liberty appeared in a more gracious form.

New England was first settled by pilgrims from old England in 1620. This was 13 years after an earlier landing in Jamestown, Virginia. However, the Puritan Separatist Pilgrims were more prolific and this colony grew faster. Originally their colony was part of the Massachusetts Bay colony. Today they are quite separate. Massachusetts dominates.

Massachusetts

This state has been truly blessed. It was destined to be special. For starters it was the cradle of the American Revolution and it led the dissatisfied states to victory both on the battlefield and off. John Adams, John Hancock, Paul Revere, Sam Adams, and John Quincy Adams (later), fire-breathing revolutionaries all, leaders at both continental congresses and on the fields of fire. It seems right, somehow that in modern Massachusetts is found the annual Boston Marathon. And in professional leagues Boston teams (Red Sox, Bruins, Patriots, Celtics) have achieved remarkable records. Other sorts of groupings come to mind.

Politically, the vast Kennedy clan has been dominant like no other. The Bush family too has been a force on both the national and international stage. Michael Dukakis yet another. Apparently, this state also leads in brainpower.

According to the 2020 World Population Review, Massachusetts’ residents demonstrated the highest average IQ of all U.S. States. We ought not to be surprised when we remember that Boston is home to both Harvard University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Even as far back as 200 years ago Massachusetts was the center of the country’s intelligentsia.

Concord, a small town of perhaps 7,000, (not to be confused with Concord, New Hampshire), was the center of learning. This was the hour of Transcendentalism – Ralph Waldo Emerson, the essayist, Henry David Thoreau, naturalist, Louisa May Alcott, Little Women, Nathaniel Hawthorne, and all the rest. Concord was the original home of the Concord grape. Today it is still home to the rich and famous – Caroline Kennedy, Doris Goodwin Kearns, Joe Namath. But hey, Massachusetts cannot afford to get too smug. We only need to be reminded that this is the state that staged and harbored the infamous witchcraft trials of 1692.

Connecticut

Connecticut is the southernmost state in New England. It rates 47th in size in the U.S. but it rates first in per-capita income. Despite its small territory the landscape varies between mountainous (it encompasses the northern portion of the Appalachian range), flat savannah grass, rugged shoreline, and tree-covered lower slopes. Its capital is Hartford, which is often referred to as the insurance capital of the world. The most populace city is Bridgeport. The state is named for the Connecticut River, which approximately bisects it. The word  “Connecticut” is derived from various spellings of Mohegan word for “long tidal river.”

Connecticut’s first settlers were not English but Dutch. The Dutch established a small, short-lived colony called Fort Hoop at the confluence of the Connecticut and Park Rivers. Enter one Thomas Hooker who led a band of followers from the Massachusetts Bay Colony and founded the Connecticut Colony; a Massachusetts company founded the Saybrook Colony and the New Haven Colony. The Connecticut and New Haven Colonies established the documents of Fundamental Orders, considered the first constitutions in America. In 1662, the three colonies were merged under a royal charter making Connecticut a crown colony. This was one of the thirteen colonies, which rejected British rule in the American Revolution.

Should you ever find yourself touring New England, particularly Connecticut, be sure to visit Old Saybrook and its venerable lighthouse. A rather accomplished and athletic lady spent her first 20 years within hailing distance of that lighthouse. She travelled to California and did a bit of acting for a spell. Then one day she returned to Saybrook where she tendered her garden for the closing years of her life. And still within hailing distance of that lighthouse. You may have heard of her - Katherine Hepburn

Rhode Island

Rhode Island is mostly not an island. It is largely on the mainland and it is known as the “Ocean State”. Actually Rhode Island is famous for its beaches – 400 miles of sandy beaches. It enjoys large bays and inlets. They amount to about 14 per cent of the total area. The state has land borders with Connecticut to the west, Massachusetts to the north and east, and the Atlantic Ocean. It also shares a small maritime border with New York. Providence is the state capital and the largest city.

The colony of Rhode Island was the first of the Thirteen Colonies to renounce its allegiance to the British Crown at the Continental Congress in 1776 and the fourth to ratify the Articles of Confederation in 1778. Rhode Island boycotted the convention, which drew up the United States Constitution in 1787 and, after initially refusing, was the last of the original 13 colonies to ratify the Constitution in 1790. 

Famous people from Rhode Island include Kevin Costner, Meredith Vieira, and Brad Faxon.

New Hampshire

Concord (not to be confused with Concord, Massachusetts) is the capital of New Hampshire while Manchester is the largest city. There is an interesting geographical feature involving New Hampshire and its neighbor to the east, Vermont. New Hampshire is broad at the top and slides down to narrow at the south or bottom end; where as Vermont is the converse. The dimensions are nearly the same as well. Thus, from above, they form two pieces of a giant jigsaw puzzle. The topography of this state is quite varied too.

The landscape of this state varies from west to east and is home to the often blustery White Mountains. As would be expected, this part of the New England states attracts skiers and participants in other winter sports. New Hampshire’s state emblem is granite and the state motto is ”Live Free Or Die”. This was the sixth of the original thirteen states to ratify the Declaration of Independence and the ninth state to confirm the Constitution.

Famous people from New Hampshire include Adam Sandler, Dan Brown, J.D. Salinger, and Tom Bergeron.

Vermont

Vermont, known as the Green Mountain State, was the fourteenth state to join the American Revolutionaries, and so it was the first to sign after the original thirteen. Vermont is the only New England state that does not border the Atlantic Ocean. Vermont has a colorful history thanks to Ethan Allen and the Green Mountain Boys. 

It was never clear who the Boys were for and who they were against. They seemed to join in as a sub-set of the American Revolutionaries, other times not so much. They were a group of rowdies with their own agenda. For instance, on their own volition, they raided and captured Fort Ticonderoga on the shores of Lake Champlain.

Famous people from Vermont include Chester Arthur, Suzy Chafee, Patty Sheehan, John LeClair, and Chester Arthur.

Maine

Maine is the eastern-most of the 48 contiguous states; it is also the northern-most. There are anomalies to its history as well. There is some strong evidence that around the year 1150, or so, Norwegian sailors had a long look at what we now know as Maine. This strong evidence includes Norwegian coins of ancient vintage discovered off the coast and even inland. Maine has other historic links. For many years the earliest settlements were known as the Massachusetts-Maine colony.

Conclusion

Some will notice that to date no mention has been made of New England’s most obvious crown jewel – the grand leafy colors of autumn. This annual display of nature gone riotous is beyond the powers of my poor pen to describe. How would I re-describe the Hope Diamond, the Taj Mahal, the sunset over Cape Town? I have but one suggestion that if put to the test might fairly describe the colorful show that New England presents each autumn.

Let loose Vincent Van Gogh with his palette re-topped with every swish of his magic brush.

What do you think of the author’s take on New England? Let us know below.

Now, you can read more from Douglas here, with an article on the man whose book may have led to the American Revolution.

The Myth and Reality of Santa Claus

The figure of Santa Claus has been increasingly commercialized in the 20th and 21st centuries. But who was the real Santa Claus? Daniel L. Smith gives his take here.

Daniel’s book on mid-19th century northern California is now available. Find our more here: Amazon US | Amazon UK

An early 20th century depiction of Santa Claus.

In present day America the day after Thanksgiving is traditionally spent hanging Christmas decorations and various lighting across the house and yard. These fun displays usually fit in the category of snowman, reindeer, or a big jolly old man with a white beard in a bright red suit with white fuzzy trim. We usually see images of this same person in stories or on the television magically hopping down chimneys and delivering gifts to sleeping families worldwide. This image has become something we’ve all been generationally born into, but where did this myth originate from? What is the truth behind this entire story?

The reality and the myth

“The real St. Nicholas lived from 270 to 342 and was known in his lifetime for fighting evil and promoting justice. He was credited with performing many miracles. His body was buried in the church in Myra, but in the 11th century pirates stole the bones and took them to Bari, Italy, where they supposedly are preserved in a Catholic church. About that time Nicholas also became a popular saint in Northern Europe. He was sometimes depicted with a staff, looking more like a Greek bishop.

The legend that has become the basis of the Santa Claus story is as follows.

A poor man had three daughters. Unable to give them dowries, he thought he would have to sell them into prostitution (something the extremely poor were sometimes forced into). Nicholas wanted to help but also keep his charity work secret. He went to their home one night but climbed on the roof when he found all the doors and windows locked. He dropped three bags of gold down the chimney, and the three young women had hung their stockings by the fire to dry. The gifts fell into the socks, and the tradition was off and running.

St. Nicholas Day, Dec. 6, is still celebrated in many countries, and often includes gifts for children and gift exchanges among adults. So, the real person who fought for social justice, elimination of poverty and protection of children has had his image corrupted by a friendly guy in a red suit who brings you generally more than you would ever want.[1]

But in the early days of Christianity, conspicuous consumption was not common among Christians. 

A Material Cause

During the days of Paul the Apostle, greed was an easy reality to observe. The rich get rich and the poor get poorer. Arguably materialism in our times today is the only way to prove any kind of “flaunting success.” Continuing to buy and accumulate “things” has become the way Americans prove our worth to others.[2]

Historian Adam English writes that, “Nearly everyone knows that Santa Claus -- the obese, old gent who squeezes himself down the chimney every Christmas Eve -- is the American alter ego of St. Nicholas. Slimmer and less overtly jolly, St. Nicholas roams about Western Europe showering children with presents on his traditional feast day of Dec. 6. In the Netherlands and parts of Germany, children expect a visit from a white-bearded, ecclesiastically garbed "Sinterklaas" (his Dutch name), who decides whether they have been naughty or nice before handing out treats from his sack.

Dutch and German immigrants brought St. Nicholas to America in the early 19th century, and he began a process of assimilation, trading in his bishop's miter and crosier for a fur-trimmed red suit and cap. The Santa we now know was the creation of poet Clement Clarke Moore (1779-1863), the author of "The Night Before Christmas"; cartoonist Thomas Nast; illustrators like N.C. Wyeth and Norman Rockwell; and the magazine ads for Coca-Cola painted by Haddon Simmons starting in 1931, in which Santa took a break from the arduousness of setting up junior's electric train by pausing to have a coke.”[3]

Christians and Santa Claus

So, here we are in 2020 and most of American society relishes in the contemporary version of St. Nick. One has got to wonder how Christians should feel about the secularized and materialistic view on Christmas Santa Claus?

Ken Ham, Director of the Creation Museum and bearer of 6 honorary university graduate degrees mentions, “The mythical Santa is clearly founded in a man who honored Jesus Christ with his life and his possessions. Nicholas gave freely of his riches to benefit those who were less fortunate than himself. This is clearly a fundamental Christian principle, as we see care for the poor proclaimed throughout Scripture (e.g. James 2:1–17).

Is that the same idea we see in the Santa Claus celebrated today? The popular song extols children to stop shouting, pouting, and crying in order to earn Santa’s favor and his gifts. This is clearly not the attitude that we see in the biblically motivated actions of the original St. Nick—and a far cry from a biblical attitude of raising children in the fear and admonition of the Lord.”[4]

Hope, Joy, Blessings

Of course discernment is the key here when it comes to a good old-fashioned secularized Christmas. Because even though Christ’s day has been cut down to a materialistic game of possessions, there are still hints scattered throughout the collage of the holidays. Bright stars, Gifts, Blessings of Joy and Hope. These are all principles of the day we know as Christmas. It is a day of blessing others. It is a day of healing and redemption. It is a day to reconnect and start fresh, knowing that there is divine light at the end of a dark road. Christmas is the day that mankind was gifted with the ultimate redemption on life by God Himself.

Other than the divinity of Jesus Christ, humanity has been blessed with the likes of the Apostles, the Christian Church, ministries of giving and selfless service, and much, much, more. Santa Claus, or St. Nick, was a man of Christ. He was known for much more than working with elves, magically transporting down chimneys, and riding a sleigh pulled by flying reindeer across the skyline. He was a man who knew how to live a life for Christ and serve the needs of humankind who ultimately needed it the most.
 

You can read a selection of Daniel’s past articles on: California in the US Civil War (here), Spanish Colonial Influence on Native Americans in Northern California (here), the collapse of the Spanish Armada in 1588 (here), early Christianity in Britain (here), the First Anglo-Dutch War (here), the 1918 Spanish Influenza outbreak (here), and an early European expedition to America (here).

Finally, Daniel Smith writes at complexamerica.org.

References

[1] Allen, Martha Sawyer. "What would St. Nick do? : St. Nicholas - the real guy - was known for his battles against evil and for justice and the downtrodden. Somehow over the centuries his image has been corrupted into that of Santa Claus, who has been called the patron saint of greed." Star Tribune [Minneapolis, MN] 4 Dec. 1999: 05B. Business Insights: Global. Web. 7 Dec. 2020.

[2] Ibid.

[3] Allen, Charlotte. "The Real Father Christmas." Wall Street Journal, Dec 06, 2012, Eastern edition.

[4] Ham, Ken. "Christians and Santa Claus: A Biblical View." Answers in Genesis. Last modified December 15, 2009. https://answersingenesis.org/jesus/birth/wintertime-worship-santa-claus-or-jesus-christ/.

Was it Right to Topple President William McKinley’s Statue? Part 4 – McKinley’s Character

William McKinley was the 25th president of the USA - from 1897-1901. While before becoming president his political career was focused on Ohio, there was a status of McKinley in Arcata, California until it was toppled in February 2019. Here, Victor Gamma returns and looks at the case for and against the removal of the statue. In part 4, we look in depth at McKinley’s character and domestic life.

If you missed it, in part 1 here Victor provides the background to the statue removal, in part 2 here he looks at McKinley’s relationship with Native Americans, and in part 3 here he considers McKinley’s relationship with African Americans.

A photo of William McKinley.

The word included in the accusations brought against the man: “rape, murder, genocide, savagery” would be a good description of a serial killer or monstrous dictator like Hitler. But they are wildly inconsistent with the known character of William McKinley. The testimony of those who knew the man are universal in their admiration of his personal habits. In 1896 when a McKinley run for president became likely, the opposition mudslinging kicked into high gear. The problem was, they could find nothing to attack him on. His life was free from scandal, he was a hard worker.  He had not used his office to enrich himself. The opposition then resorted to digging up falsehoods.

In fact, the general respect with which this man had garnered from public opinion is well illustrated from an incident occurring in 1893. In that year of financial panic, McKinley, through no fault of his own, faced bankruptcy. His debts far exceeded his ability to repay and so he considered quitting politics and returning to practice law. When his desperate straits became public knowledge, a great outpouring of public sympathy arose. As many as five thousand donations, many from Democrats, poured into the Governor's office. The reason? His reputation for kindness and as an honest public servant who never used his office for public gain. The Democrat Brooklyn Eagle described the entire affair, both the bankruptcy and the generosity of friends in coming to McKinley’s assistance as “a matter of hearthstone pleasure around the land.”

Honest politician

To those who say an honest politician doesn’t exist, I say, meet William McKinley. Even in that era when people took religion seriously, he stood out as an example of a complete Christian gentleman. He is, in fact, considered to be one of the most devout men to ever occupy the White House. He was a lifelong and pious member of the Methodist Church. As a holder of public office, he would often pray before making important political decisions. His soul-searching about what to do with the Philippines is not atypical. On that subject he said to a group of visitors: “I walked the floor of the White House night after night, until midnight. And I am not ashamed to tell you gentlemen, that I went down on my knees and prayed to Almighty God for light and guidance more than one night.” He disapproved of off-color jokes or stories in his presence. As president of the local Y.M.C.A. he mentored young men to take their devotion to spiritual and moral standards seriously and led them in street-witnessing outings. McKinley characteristically proclaimed his spiritual convictions publicly, “Our faith teaches that there is no safer reliance than upon the God of our fathers, who has so singularly favored the American people in every national trial, and who will not forsake us so long as we obey His commandments and walk humbly in his footsteps.” I believe the record of his life, as witnessed partially in this article, provides abundant examples of the fact that his life and actions as a political leader were amply informed by his religious convictions. 

Broad-minded

Next, evidence is abundant of his basic broad-mindedness. In the words of one biographer, “McKinley was devoid of bigotry…” For instance, although a dedicated member of the Methodist Church all his life, his creed based itself on the love and kindness of God, not doctrinal bickering. In contrast to a rising tide of anti-Catholicism, he consistently embraced into his circle of friends and into his administration followers of all creeds, including Catholic. His choice as Commissioner-General of Immigration was an Irish Catholic labor leader named Terence Vincent Powderly, founder of the Knights of Labor. At the presentation of the sword to Admiral Dewey on October 3, 1899, McKinley took the unprecedented step of having a Roman Catholic prelate, Cardinal Gibbons, pronounce the benediction. Despite his strict Methodism, he made many friends among the Catholic community of Canton. 

Kindred to this, his attitude toward labor further underlined his humanity. Although a Republican and decidedly pro-business, he managed at the same time to be a friend of labor. This was no easy feat during the ‘Gilded Age’. Conflict between labor and the corporate interests was so intense at this time that some were afraid it would lead to a new civil war. Despite this, McKinley managed to win the support and respect of both sides. He understood the importance of a healthy business environment while at the same time sympathizing with the grievances of labor. His popularity with labor dates from an early court case in which he defended some miners who had been involved in a riot. He managed to get all but one acquitted. When the strikers scraped up money to reimburse him, McKinley refused to accept payment from the struggling miners. Numerous measures passed for the protection of workers during his tenure as governor of Ohio show his influence. He often took it upon himself to arbitrate labor disputes, attempting to win settlements favorable to both sides. When he did so, he insisted that his involvement be kept private.  

Dedicated public servant

By all accounts McKinley was a dedicated public servant. As president, he rarely took vacations. In 1898, a very taxing year involving major foreign policy crises, he took one holiday lasting one week. Part of it was spent visiting a military hospital to check on conditions and encourage the sick and wounded. Intense pressure brought on by the Spanish-American War and scandals over the War Department would have driven a lesser man to frequent vacations - not the sober McKinley. Contrast this with the frequent vacations taken by recent presidents. During that war, which McKinley had done everything he could to avoid, he was governed by the rule he articulated to his Secretary of War, Russell Alger. The Secretary was eager to deflect negative publicity and cater to growing demands from militiamen who feared the war would end before they had a chance to see action. To accomplish these ends he proposed to the president an immediate attack on Puerto Rico. McKinley answered with his usual terse practicality and high standards, “Mr Secretary what do you think the people will say if they believe we unnecessarily and at great expense send these boys out of the country? Is it either necessary or expedient?” 

Eyewitnesses also reported that the Major was devoid of pretense or self-importance no matter how high he rose in the public service. Both in speech and appearance he “showed no sign of self-importance or affectation” in Leech’s words, and was always accessible to the general public. He often insisted that his participation in certain accomplishments be kept out of the paper for he had “no desire to indulge in any pyrotechnics.” His attitude toward public service can be summed up in the following statements taken down by his secretary George Cortelyou, “when the time comes the question of my acquiescence (to re-nomination in 1900) will be based absolutely upon whether the call of duty appears to me clear and well defined.” Since McKinley was not known for empty platitudes, we can take these statements at face value.

Domestic life

In domestic virtues McKinley developed a reputation which approached the legendary. He married Ida Saxton on January 25, 1871. The marriage was sadly destined to have its share of tragedies. Two daughters were born to the couple, both of whom died in early childhood. The sad little graves of Katie and Ida McKinley can be seen in the McKinley Memorial in Canton, Ohio. McKinley’s wife never quite recovered from this double blow and was a semi-recluse for the rest of the couples’ marriage. As author Margaret Leech put it “The pretty, pleasure-seeking young woman McKinley had married had changed to a feeble, self-centered nervous invalid.” Much of the Major’s time was spent tending to his wife during her frequent bouts of illness and seeking respite by sending her to various cures. Ida could also be rather demanding. Many official meetings were interrupted by her insisting her husband leave the meeting immediately and tender his views on some domestic matter. Common themes were his opinion on which fabric to use in creation of some item of clothing or decor. The disgruntled participants of the meeting were surprised to see McKinley immediately leap up to go to his wife at these summonses. To many his wife’s solicitations seemed trivial, but McKinley invariably gave her his full and careful attention. Unlike many men in his circumstances, the Major never gave in to complaint or the seeking out of other female companionship. Instead, many observed him change to accommodate his wife. He was observed tirelessly ministering to her needs and attentive to her comfort. His tone of voice became soft and careful, he developed skill in diverting Ida, he endured close, stuffy environments because she avoided fresh air, he adjusted his gait to suit her hesitant pace. He became expert at diagnosing the degree of severity of her attacks and treating them. His example of domestic constancy was one factor in winning the support of women, who, although they lacked the suffrage at this time, were playing an increasingly important role in social and political issues. After decades of marriage he continued to sign his letters to her “your faithful husband and always your lover.” During the White House years, so devoted was the president to the First Lady that Senator Mark Hanna remarked that McKinley's dedication to her was “making it awfully hard on all the other husbands around here.”

Quotes on McKinley

But instead of relying on our distant voices alone, let us allow those who knew him to speak. The following are a series of quotes.

He was “a mediaeval knight in the dusty arena of Ohio politics” - Bellamy Storer.

“He never had a harsh word, but rather a kindly appeal: ‘Come now, let us put the personal element aside and consider the principle involved.’ “ - Robert La Follette.

“That never failing remedy of yours.” -- Mark Hanna on McKinley’s famous tact.

"In a few minutes word came from Mr. McKinley that he would see me. How any man can see so many people ... and still keep himself calm, patient, and fresh for each visitor in the way that President McKinley does, I cannot understand. - Booker T. Washington

McKinley Quotes:

“This seems to be right and fair and just. I think so don’t you?” (To Mark Hanna)

“There are some things … I would not do and cannot do, even to become President of the United States.”

“War should never be entered upon until every agency of peace has failed; peace is preferable to war in almost every contingency.” 

This brings us back to the accusations. Bearing in mind that this article is by no means an exhaustive description of the admirable character of our 25th president, ask yourself, does William McKinley sound like someone who would be guilty of “racism, murder and slaughter” or willing to tolerate the enslavement and abuse of anyone? Or has he been most grievously misrepresented? 

Having read the series, what do you think of William McKinley? Let us know below.

Now, if you want to learn about Tudor England, you can read Victor’s series on Henry VIII’s divorce of Catherine of Aragon here.

References

The Booker T. Washington Papers, Vol. 5: 1899-1900, University of Illinois Press, 1976.

“Conflict Among the Tribes and Settlers.” Nebraska Studies.org

Gould, Lewis L. The Presidency of William McKinley, Lawrence: Regents Press of Kansas, 1980.

Gould, Lewis. “William McKinley Domestic Affairs.” 2019, miller center.org, accessed October, 2020.

Harpine, William D.  “African American Rhetoric of Greeting During McKinley’s 1896 Front Porch Campaign.” University of South Carolina Scholar Commons Faculty Publications Communication Department 2010.

Leech, Margaret, In the Days of McKinley, New York: Harper and Brothers, 1959

McKinley, William, First Annual Message to Congress, December 6, 1897.

McKinley, William, First Inaugural Address, March 4, 1897.

McKinley, William. “Veto Message to Congress.” May 03, 1900.

“William McKinley and Civil Rights” Presidential History Geeks, Oct. 13th, 2011, potus-geeks.livejournal.com, accessed October, 2020.

Marshall, Everett, Complete Life of William McKinley and Story of His Assassination An Authentic and Official Memorial Edition, Containing Every Incident in the Career of the Immortal Statesman, Soldier, Orator and Patriot, Originally published by Donahue, 1901

Morgan, H. Wayne,  “The View from the Front Porch: William McKinley and the Campaign of 1896" presented to the 12th Hayes Lecture on the Presidency, February 18, 2001, in the Hayes Museum auditorium.

“Patterns of White Settlement in Oklahoma” Region 3 Oklahoma Historic Preservation Survey, Oklahoma State University, 1986. 

Washington, Booker T. Up From Slavery, An Autobiography, New York: Doubleday, 1901.

Growing up in Post-World War Two Liverpool

World War Two had great impacts on so many people, but what were the impacts and memories of people after the war? In this memoir-based article, Alice Cullinane explains the experiences of her grandfather who grew up in Liverpool, England in the years after World War Two.

The impact of the Liverpool Blitz.

John Rooney was in his 50’s when he discovered his father’s codebreaking history at Bletchley Park, the famed code-breaking site in England. He was born just after the war in Liverpool - the “heaviest bombed area of the country” outside of London, which killed nearly 3,000 people. (1) From wearing gas masks that contained a ‘magic mineral’, to watching the Luftwaffe bomb the Liverpool docks, John has experienced life severely troubled by war. 

“We lived in big Victorian houses…quite run-down, but not derelict.” John was 1 of 12 children in his considerably large family, with siblings contributing towards the ‘Baby Boom’ era. In post-war Britain, the government built new schools and introduced other measures such as free school milk and child benefits to cater for the boomer generation. (2) Bombings destroyed thousands of homes, with Britain facing its worst housing shortage of the 20th century. Around 750,000 new homes were required in England and Wales in 1945 to provide all families with accommodation. (4) “Where we lived, there had only been a small number of bombings." However, on John's road, the bombings destroyed one house, leaving just "a heap of debris" with "no doors or windows." He remembers "my elder brother and I finding a lot of ruined houses…going in one once to be chased out by a family who lived in this ruined house."

Although the war ended before John’s life, it is undeniable that remnants lingered. He recalls having "two gas masks in the house, which we actually needed because my elder brother set the house on fire." His brother caused the house fire by "playing with matches", which he recalls finding very "exciting."

In 1939, the government issued 38 million gas masks to the public, with strict instructions - carry at all times. (5) However, by the beginning of 1940, almost no one bothered to take their gas mask with them; the government announced monthly gas mask inspections as a result. Fear hung around the use of gas, but the Germans never used it against the British in World War Two.  Local doctors noticed factory workers employed in making the masks were showing abnormally high numbers of deaths from cancer; they later discovered the gas mask filters contained Asbestos, consequently seen as the ‘magic’ mineral during much of the 20th century. (6)

Rationing, the Luftwaffe and Bletchley Park

"We found it (the war) all very exciting. There was rationing…I remember my mum tearing out the coupon."  The equality of rationing appealed to many. There was a sense that everyone was doing their bit to fight the war from home. Rationing also helped a black market to thrive; ‘Spivs’ offered extra food and rare luxuries to those who could afford them. (7) "We were told by my mum…to walk down the middle of the road when it was windy" as "the slates would come sailing off the roofs and smash in the road." Housing shortages and little money meant that many didn't repair their homes. There was a neglect of numerous homes which were due for demolition under slum clearance plans before the war. (8) John recalls "areas of a huge amount of damage…everything was damaged and broken. They began clearing that in the 1950s."

“I remember somebody the same age as me saying…he used to watch the Luftwaffe come over and bomb." In the early 1940s, the Liverpool docks were a significant target for the Luftwaffe (9); however they had supply problems and a lack of aircraft reserves throughout the battle. There was a proposal for the Luftwaffe to take on a kamikaze unit, although no suicide missions took place. (10) John's dad, was "originally in Palestine, in the intelligence branch of the Royal Signals." He "was then moved to Bletchley Park, where he was one of the code breakers there." All staff signed the Official Secrets Act in 1939, and even within Bletchley Park discretion was highlighted in 1942: "Do not talk at meals. Do not talk in the transport. Do not talk travelling. Do not talk in the billet.” (11) "He wasn't allowed to talk about it…but we did notice…there were things like we had German bits in the house and codebooks."

In the 1990s, John discovered his dad's exciting history, finding great joy in seeing his name on the computers in Bletchley Park. "My mum, she worked in the censorship." Local officials used censorship and propaganda to maintain the morale of citizens during the war, helping prevent defeat. Specific details which might have caused people to lose hope were kept secret, for the spirit of the country. (12) “She used to do fire duty, watching for buildings going on fire.” The Luftwaffe dropping incendiary bombs worried the British government in particular, so they recruited 6,000 people for the Auxiliary Fire Service, and they went on duty after working their regular jobs. The establishment of temporary fire stations occurred in schools and church halls. (13) John’s mother "would walk along the main road, and the buildings would be burning either side of her."

When John visited France in the 1960s, he felt "it was as if the war had only just happened…20 years later." For many, including John, it's clear that the war had lasting effects on society and the economy, taking decades to return to a new normal.

What do you think of life in post World War Two Liverpool? Let us know below.

References

(1)   Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liverpool_Blitz

(2) Yesterday: https://yesterday.uktv.co.uk/history/article/baby-boom/

3) Historic Liverpool: https://historic-liverpool.co.uk/liverpool-in-the-1950s/

(4) History of Housing UK: http://www.bushywood.com/building/History_House_Building_UK_WWI_WWII_Shortages.htm#:~:text=As%20with%20WW1%2C%20there%20was,had%20been%20destroyed%20by%20bombing.&text=The%20birth%20rate%20climbed%20after,shortage%20of%20the%2020th%20century

(5) Find my Past: https://www.findmypast.co.uk/1939register/why-britain-issued-gas-masks-ww2

(6) Spartacus Education: https://spartacus-educational.com/spartacus-blogURL124.htm

(7) Find my Past: https://www.findmypast.co.uk/1939register/rationing-in-britain-ww2

(8) The History of Council Housing: https://fet.uwe.ac.uk/conweb/house_ages/council_housing/print.htm

9) WW2 People’s War-https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ww2peopleswar/stories/15/a3237815.shtml

(10) Facts about the German Luftwaffe- https://www.historyhit.com/facts-about-the-german-luftwaffe/

(11) Wikipedia- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bletchley_Park#:~:text=All%20staff%20signed%20the%20Official,not%20talk%20in%20the%20billet.

(12) My Learning- https://www.mylearning.org/stories/censorship-and-propaganda-in-ww2/483?#:~:text=World%20War%20Two%20affected%20the,in%20Britain%20in%20many%20ways.&text=For%20this%20reason%2C%20local%20officials,the%20morale%20of%20the%20country

(13) Spartacus Education- https://spartacus-educational.com/2WWincendiary.htm

What do Niccolò Machiavelli, the Decapitation of King Charles I and Income Inequality have in common?

What do Niccolò Machiavelli, the decapitation of King Charles I of England, and income inequality have in common? Here, Phillip Min Kong argues that it is the 1642-1651 English Civil War that binds the three together.

King Charles I of England in three positions. Painting by Sir Anthony Van Dyck.

The English Civil War is one of the most notable civil wars in history, but what caused this huge war to happen, and what were its effects not only in history but also in modern society?

The English Civil War is one of the most significant civil wars in history because of the heroic acts of Parliament that changed England during the 1600s in ways that endure to today. By expanding democratic institutions, Parliament evened the gap between England’s rulers and its citizens and ushered in the start of a better monarchy and a more equal society. Why then did Charles I need to lose his head?

Background

The English Civil War started in 1642 and continued until 1651; the main issue between King Charles I and Parliament was the role of monarchy. Charles I was a strong believer of the divine rights of kings, a concept supported by Jacques Bossuet that stated the full authority of the monarchy and the right to rule came directly from God. Parliamentary forces disagreed, but though they sought increased power, they also had no intention of deposing Charles I. When the “long Parliament,” so named for their extended dismissal, was summoned by Charles I to pass financial legislation, events did not unfold as planned. Not only did Parliament ultimately win, but also the conflict led to Charles I being executed and replaced by Oliver Cromwell, who eliminated anti-Parliament forces and ensured no monarch could again rule without Parliament's power. However, in an uncanny echoing of Charles I, Cromwell soon began to dangerously take on the trappings of the monarchy, declaring himself Lord Protector of England, and even having his son installed in that position after his death. This attempt was soon thwarted by the restoration of the Long Parliament in 1659, and the restoration of King Charles II under a constitutional monarchy in 1660.

Niccolò Machiavelli

In 1513, the Italian Diplomat Niccolò Machiavelli published his book The Prince, in which he asserted that it is better to rule unscrupulously. More than one hundred years later, his theories would play out far from his home country. As history proceeded from the English Civil War, the new constitutional monarchy represented a step towards democracy when compared to the rules of Charles I and Oliver Cromwell. When Charles I was executed and the new republic of the Commonwealth of England was created, the notion that the divine rights of kings gave the monarch's full authority was directly turned on its head. Yet, a monarchy continues to this day in the United Kingdom. This relates to how the Parliament requested more power, not complete elimination of a king. The monarchy today in the United Kingdom is called a constitutional monarchy. Just as Parliament sought in the 1600s, the making and passing of legislation became strictly dependent on elected representatives. The sovereign head of state, the king or queen, could no longer make, change, and delete laws at their whim. The English king Charles I - and later Cromwell - attempted Machiavellian rule in some ways, but each was too corrupt to think of English citizens over himself; consequently, income inequality combined with social divisions, unscrupulously (or not) caused Charles to lose his head and the monarchy to lose its power.

Income inequality

However, this did not solve one of the root problems that not only contributed to the English Civil War, but also lasts to this day in modern society: income inequality. One of the main reasons for the English Civil War breaking out was England’s debt. Before King Charles’ reign, his father, James I was wasting resources for his own benefit; Charles was no different. Parliament’s consent was needed to raise taxes to pay off these debts; however, Parliament refused. Charles dismissed Parliament once again and unsuccessfully sought alternative income sources, earning only the hatred of the English people. Combined with another disagreement in the form of religious differences - the Protestant Parliament greatly disapproved of Charles’s marriage to a Catholic queen, and was worried about a potential Catholic heir to the throne - the threat to Charles was amplified and civil war ensued. While the English Civil War’s effects directly addressed some causes of the civil war, other problems, like income inequality, persisted because even though the leadership of the country started to come from Parliament, Parliament was still largely full of nobles. Since the nobles were happy with their income and life, even after the civil war, there was no need to change what was already pleasing to them.

Modern context

Therefore, there are still lessons that can be learned from the English Civil War, especially considering the current climate of income inequality and increasing political polarization in the world today. When we take into account widespread economic inequality, coupled with a president in the US who has threatened not to leave office, many of the same issues that caused the English Civil War are still prevalent in the world today. The current income inequality in the United Kingdom is growing. English democracy separates the power in a way that is healthy for the country, but must soon deal with rising economic populism, or even another kind of government system that may soon appear. The rise of economic populist political forces like Donald Trump and the UK’s Brexit vote bear resemblance to the same forces that produced political change in the English Civil War. However, thanks to democracy, while the continuing political conflict and social divisions seem likely to cause some politicians to lose power, they can thank the English Civil War that they will keep their heads.

What do you think of the article? Let us know below.

Britain’s Relationship with the European Dictators in the Interwar Years

In the decades between the two world wars, Europe was very unstable, and many countries saw dictators come to power. Here, Stephen Prout considers how democratic Britain engaged with the dictators in Italy, Spain, and Germany over the period

Neville Chamberlain and Adolf Hitler meeting in 1938. Source: Bundesarchiv, Bild 146-1976-063-32 / CC-BY-SA 3.0, available here.

Britain’s relationships with the main West European dictatorships, Italy, Spain and Germany, during the interwar period were often of a cordial and accommodating manner. The view Britain stood alone in defying the dictatorships was not necessarily true in this period.

The treaties established after the Great War did not address all the old grievances. New ones arose. The USA almost immediately distanced itself from the League of Nations and Europe, leaving the victors to preside over matters with their old imperial ways. Democracies largely failed and a precarious economic outlook helped both right- and left-wing extremism flourish. Communism was often the specter most reviled by the democracies and the dictators, ironically bringing unintended consensus between them.

Britain and Italy

Mussolini is remembered as being part of the Axis Powers, but Italy was very much regarded as an asset and the relationship followed a friendlier dynamic and path right up to the war.

During the Great War the British government maintained Italian participation and Mussolini himself was supported financially by British Intelligence payroll to promote pro-war feeling in his journalistic capacity. This cordial relationship continued after fascism installed itself.

Fascist atrocities and violence did little to deter the British from continuing this friendly relationship with Mussolini. They would adopt a partially sighted attitude to many of Mussolini’s actions such as his march on Rome to seize power, the murder of his political rival Giacomo Matteotti, and the removal of opposition figures that followed were simply dismissed with the thought that ‘Italy is not England’.

The condoning was publicly evident. The Times of London proclaimed that British and Italian empires were in perfect harmony. Up to the beginning of the 1930s Italian policy was given full approval by the British press and statesmen, such as Sir Austen Chamberlain. Clearly, Britain would not be shaken when British interests were unmolested.

In 1923 for a few short months Italy invaded the island of Corfu and demanded substantial reparations from Greece.  A short military offensive ensued described by Baldwin as “violent and excusable” for demands that Lord Curzon termed as “extravagant”.  Britain did little to protest; instead Curzon believed that referring the matter to the League of Nations would cause Italy to leave the League, so he bypassed protocol.

Curzon believed the League would have been ineffective as sanctions would have been vetoed by France and the USA, not being a member, would still trade with Italy. The outcome would have isolated a friendly power, which was not expedient to British interests.  In fact, Lord Curzon dealt with the matter by dispensing with all Foreign Office formalities and involving the League little, a behavior or disregard that was no better than those displayed Mussolini.  However aggressive military actions by the British in Iraq around the time were little different, so they had no moral high ground themselves.

Strained relations

Curzon showed limited disapproval of Mussolini’s actions, but Britain needed an ally.  Apart from the Corfu incident there were divisions with France over the 1922 Treaty of Lausanne. Reliance on France was in question after France, with Soviet Russia and Italy, set up formal agreements with Turkey.  His efforts to maintain a relationship with Poincare, the French Premier, were strained and by 1922 Britain saw herself isolated and weakened in the Middle Eastern diplomatic world. Britain and France were on the brink of a European ‘divorce’ from their old alliance. Italy could fill that void or balance out French power and influence. Indeed, Italy appeared to be the one to rival or at least be used in leverage against French ambitions to support British interests. 

More approval came when the Ambassador to Rome Howard Kennel commented “that the Fascist Regime was the thing saving Italy from Communism”.  The anti-communist stance would be of equal importance in influencing Britain’s dealings with the dictators alongside her own financial interests. Much could be tolerated if her own interests were not affected.

This attitude can be found in the circles of the Cliveden set in Britain. This group was an elite networking group of the political and establishment influencers.  Neville Chamberlain, Anthony Eden, and Lord Halifax were known in these circles. They had admiration for fascism and sympathies for German grievances. The Times of London in August 1922 saw fascism as “a necessary subversive force” to counter the perceived menace of Bolshevism.  

Winston Churchill himself was not shy of praising Mussolini and other dictators. In 1927 he quoted from Creeds of The Devil “If I had been an Italian I am sure that I should have whole been whole heartedly with you from start to finish in your triumphant struggle against the bestial appetites and passions of Leninism.”  He would also later say: “I would not pretend that if I had to choose between Communism and Nazism that I would choose Communism”. 

Churchill often changed his attitudes and allegiances, but interestingly before the Second World War he courted the dictators from Italy, Spain, and Portugal before his overtures to Stalin. Expediency allows many things to be forgotten and overlooked.

The relationship with Italy was further ratified and strengthened in 1925 by King George’s visit to Italy, which “added a glint of respectability to the fascist regime.” Meanwhile establishment circles and media were sharing similarly favorable sentiments.

Another view by the Observer was that “Italy should be kept as an ally against France” at a time when the French occupation of the German Ruhr was seen as just as reprehensible as Italian actions in Corfu by some.

Italy’s later invasion of Abyssinia did little to change British diplomacy.  The reluctance to deal with Italian aggression in 1935-36, which sprang not from timidity of the fascist but of “conservative ideological sympathy with the Fascist regime” (AJP Taylor).

Franco and the Spanish Civil War

Franco’s Spain also enjoyed cordial treatment from the British government.  Spain between 1936 and 1939 was undergoing a Civil War. All the main European Powers played a part. Italy and Germany were actively supporting Franco. Soviet Russia, Franco’s opponents.  The British followed a policy of non-intervention along with France, which did as much to aid Franco as military support from the Axis Powers. 

AJP Taylor also says that timidity was the primary influence behind the British political stance on Spain, Pro-Fascism second and then a significant financial interest.  It has been argued had it been the Communists who had the upper hand then perhaps actual intervention would have been applied.  Churchill, he argues, was also pro-Franco during the civil war.  

Westminster also echoed anti-communist and pro-Franco sentiments as British economic interests were at stake, with Spain accounting for many British imports and exports and with the strategic importance of Gibraltar.

Diplomats such as George Ogilvie-Forbes reported in 1936 to the Foreign Office that “word was needed in the press or parliament that the rebels were guilty of wanton cruelty especially to children” however the response was muted.  These reports detailed regular atrocities, yet Britain maintained her distance. At the end of the war in 1939, Franco quickly gained recognition from Britain.

Eastern Europe and the united front

Trouble in Czechoslovakia and Poland gathered momentum in the late 1930s. Although Britain always kept a distance from Eastern Europe, she took a lead in the 1938 Sudeten Crisis.  The likes of Neville Chamberlain, William Strang, Nevile Henderson, and Lord Halifax did not favor the Czechoslovaks but instead tolerated Hitler’s demands, putting pressure on the Czechs to concede.  Henderson regarded the Czechoslovak leader Benes as “pig-headed” over his refusals.  Strang from the British Foreign Office recommended the surrender of Czechoslovakia, making her a German satellite.

Poland suffered equally dismal treatment.  Lord Halifax said on the very day of his pledge “we do not think this guarantee will be binding”. Alexander Cadogan, another unsympathetic diplomat, remarked that “Poland was not worth the bones of a single Grenadier”. 

While the Czech crisis was in full swing an Anglo-Italian agreement was concluded fresh from the international illegalities of Abyssinian affair. Britain was still prepared to sign agreements with the dictators.

In Britain’s defense the horrors that the Nazi regime committed were not yet known and they perhaps felt no obligation to fully understand what the regime would do. Most countries that were in the center of the disputes were not democracies and some, like Poland and the Soviet Union, had their own virulent anti-Semitic ways.  There was genuine sympathy for German claims after he Great War, a menacing Soviet Union in the background, and few allies to rely on. 

What do you think of Britain and the Great Dictators? Let us know below.

References

AJP Taylor “Origins of the Second War ”

R J B Bosworth “The British Press, The Conservatives ad Mussolini, 1920-34” Sage Publications

Creeds of the Devil Churchill Between the Two Totalitarianisms 1917-45 – Antoine Capet Universite De Rouen

Enrique Moradiellos – British Strategy in the Face of Military Rising in Spain P 123-157 – Contemporary European History – Cambridge University Press

C E Peden – Economic Background to British Foreign Policy 1937-39 – Wiley

C A Macdonald – Economic Appeasement and the German Moderates Introductory Essay – Past and Present P 105-135 – Oxford University Press.