What was Puritan Society like in Seventeenth Century America?

Puritans started arriving to America from Britain in the seventeenth century. They had strong religious beliefs and social customs, many of which were different to official Protestant teachings in England. Here, we consider Puritan society in seventeenth century New England.

You can read a few of the author’s former articles on US history on the bodies in Benjamin Franklin’s basement (here) and the humility of George Washington (here).

Pilgrims Going to Church, an 1867 painting by George Henry Boughton.

During the reign of Queen Elizabeth I of England, the English Parliament put forth measures designed to reform the theological doctrines and rituals of the Church of England. This church was founded during the reign of King Henry VIII in 1534 after separating papal authority from England in order to annul his marriage to his first wife and marry Elizabeth’s mother. From then on, the Puritan movement flourished both in prosperity and persecution. [1]

However, even after Elizabeth’s death and ascension of her cousin, King James I of England, Puritan leaders requested he grant numerous reforms including the abolition of bishops, most of which the king rejected. Fed up with mounting subjugation from the English government and church hierarchy, many Puritans immigrated to the New World.

Under the backing of the Massachusetts Bay Company, the first major Puritan migration to New England occurred, and with that, strong religious convictions to shape all colonies north of Virginia with New England as its center. A key difference between pilgrims and puritans is that the pilgrims were commonly known as “Separatists” who believed that the only way to live according to the Bible involved leaving the Church of England completely while Puritans believed they could reform the church from within and live out the congregational way in their local churches without abandoning the Church of England which is how they earned their occasional nickname – “non-separating” Puritans. [2]Both groups shared much in common pertaining to forms of worship and self-organization referred to as “the congregational way.”

The Puritans, with more money to bring with them than the Pilgrims, saw a desirable investment opportunity by owning land in the New World while also believing that due to the distance from England, they could create the ideal English church. John Winthrop, a Puritan leader, commented regarding founding a church “that will be a light to the nations,” according to Vicki Oman, associate director of group participation and learning at the historic Plimouth Plantation. The first great migration of Puritans took place in 1630, placing God and church at the center of their lives. The ministers of these churches wielded considerable influence in their communities and the colonies.

Political Life

The people of a society were bound by a social covenant according to the Puritans. Examples of such an agreement are the Mayflower Compact in Plymouth and New Haven’s Fundamental Agreement. Eligible voters chose qualified men to govern and submit to the covenant and to God as well as promote the common good. On a national scale, the Puritans believed in a national covenant with God, that they were chosen by God to help redeem the world through their complete obedience to his will. If they honored the covenant, they were rewarded; if not, they would fail. In Puritan colonies, the Congregational church operated as a state religion. All residents in Massachusetts and Connecticut were required to pay taxes to support the Congregational churches. Church attendance was mandatory. There was greater separation between church and state in Puritan commonwealths than anywhere in Europe at the time. Secular matters were conducted only by civil authorities and those who held religious offices were barred from holding positions in civil government. [3]

Family Life 

For Puritans, marriage was the foundation of the family and hence society. While in England, people were wed by ministers in church mandated by the Book of Common Prayer, Puritans thought that there was no biblical justification for church weddings or the exchange of wedding rings. Instead, marriages were conducted as a private, contractual occasion oversaw by a civil magistrate in his home or a member of the bride’s family. [4]

Scholars debate on the nature of Puritan child-rearing with some historians arguing that it was repressive, based on the equally debated views of John Robinson, the Pilgrims’ first pastor. Others argue that child-rearing aimed to grow godly affection and reason in children with corporal punishment utilized as a last resort.[5]

Education 

England at the time possessed a literacy rate of less than 30 percent. Therefore, Puritan leaders in colonial New England strongly encouraged that children be educated for religious and civil reasons. In 1642, Massachusetts mandated that men, the heads of their households, teach their wives, children, and servants fundamental reading and writing skills so they could read the Bible and comprehend colonial laws. Teachings of enlightenment thinkers, such as John Locke’s ‘blank slate’ in children, were shared by the Puritans. In 1647, the government asked all towns with fifty or more households to hire a teacher and towns of a hundred or more households to hire a grammar school instructor to prepare boys for college. [6]Thanks to these efforts, the Puritans were “[o]ne of the most literate groups in the early modern world,” according to historian Bruce C. Daniels, with an approximately 60 percent literacy rate in New England.

Recreation and Leisure

According to satirist and journalist H.L. Mencken, Puritanism is “the haunting fear that someone, somewhere, may be happy.”[7]While Puritans did not celebrate traditional or personal holidays like Christmas, Easter, birthdays, or anniversaries, they did celebrate military victories, harvests, ordinations, weddings, and births. The tavern was also a significant place for people to gather on a regular basis. A Puritan clergyman, Increase Mather, wrote that dancing was “a natural expression of joy; so that there is no more sin in it, than in laughter,” but discouraged mixed dancing between men and women, something that was illegal in taverns. [8]

Sports and games were also a favorite pastime so long as gambling was not in the picture. The Puritans were opposed to blood sports that included cockfighting, cudgel-fighting, and bear-baiting as these were viewed as cruel and harmful to God’s creatures. Hunting and fishing were considered productive and therefore, accepted. Sports that promoted civic virtue in the views of the Puritans involved marksmanship, running, and wrestling.

Decline in Influence

The Half-Way Covenant, a form of partial church membership, in addition to the rise of dissenting Anglicans, Baptists, Presbyterians, and Quakers in the late 17th and early 18th centuries, meant Puritan and Congregational churches were on the decline. While a specific year or set of years when the Puritan era ended is not recorded or agreed upon universally, 1740 seems the most likely year for the end of the Puritan era. At this time, Puritan tradition branched off into conservatives, pietists, and rationalists. [9]Puritan decline was also making way for the Great Awakening of the 1740s, marked by widespread religious fervor and calls for toleration in the colonies, and the Enlightenment of the 1750s, marked by many scientific discoveries and inventions and the power of human reason. [10]There is no doubt the Puritan foundation of New England’s colonies provided the blueprint for breaking away from Great Britain in the Revolutionary War more than a century later.

Having contributed a wide range of articles over the last two years, this is Casey’s last article for the site (but hopefully she’ll be back one day!). The editors would like to thank her for the numerous excellent articles she has written.

Now, please feel free to share a comment on this article below.

[1]“People and Ideas: Early American Groups.” PBS, Public Broadcasting Service,www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/godinamerica-early-american-groups/.

[2]Roos, Dave. “What's the Difference Between Puritans and Pilgrims?” History.com, A&E Television Networks, 31 July 2019, www.history.com/news/pilgrims-puritans-differences.

[3]Bremer, Francis J. (1995). The Puritan Experiment: New England Society from Bradford to Edwards (Revised ed.). University Press of New England.

[4]HOCHSTETLER, LAURIE. “MAKING MINISTERIAL MARRIAGE: THE SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS LEGACY OF THE DOMINION OF NEW ENGLAND.” The New England Quarterly, vol. 86, no. 3, 2013, pp. 488–499. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/43285011.

[5]Moran, Gerald F., and Maris A. Vinovskis. “The Great Care of Godly Parents: Early Childhood in Puritan New England.” Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, vol. 50, no. 4/5, 1985, pp. 24–37. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/3333861.

[6]Bremer, Francis J. “Puritanism: A Very Short Introduction.” Google Books, Google, 2009, books.google.com/books?id=RDnRCwAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false.

[7]Mencken, H. L. “A Quote from A Mencken Chrestomathy.” Goodreads, Goodreads, www.goodreads.com/quotes/34745-puritanism-the-haunting-fear-that-someone-somewhere-may-be-happy.

[8]Daniels, Bruce C. “Sober Mirth and Pleasant Poisons: Purltan Ambivalence Toward Leisure and Recreation in Colonial New England.” American Studies, vol. 34, no. 1, 1993, pp. 121–137. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/40642499.

[9]Noll, Mark A. “America's God: From Jonathan Edwards to Abraham Lincoln.” Google Books, Oxford University Press, 3 Oct. 2002, books.google.com/books?id=LanKhFle9BUC&source=gbs_navlinks_s.

[10]“Americans Share New Ideas.” The Story of America, by John A. Garraty, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1994, pp. 95–98.

The Real Reasons for the Salem Witch Hunt: “Under an Evil Hand”

The Salem witch trials are one of the most infamous events of 17th century America, ultimately leading to the death of many women in Salem. But what were the events that caused the trials? Here Kaitlyn Beck explores the history of Salem, and how the quest for power, medicine, and religion all had their influences on the witch-hunt.

An image of the Salem witch trials by Frank O. Small.

In January of 1692, nine-year-old Betty Parris began to exhibit unusual behavior including loud cries and convulsions. By mid-February, her cousin Abigail began to exhibit the same symptoms and Pastor Parris decided to consult with the Dr. William Griggs, the town physician. After weeks of observation, Griggs concluded that “the evil hand is upon them”, known by the people as a diagnosis of witchcraft (Dashiell). This was the beginning of the Salem Witch Trials.

In the midst of political and cultural unrest, Dr. William Griggs’ medical diagnosis of witchcraft became the catalyst that started the Salem Witchcraft trials of 1692. Before the start of these infamous witch trials, Salem was veering away from its ‘City on a Hill’ ideals. With divided loyalties and slow retraction from the Puritan faith that the town was founded upon, prominent members of its society were concerned of what would become of their town.  When young girls began to show signs of unnatural behavior that none could explain, the town was distraught. Such circumstances created a powder keg, needing only an official word to create the explosion that was the Salem Witch trials. 

The 1680s in Salem

During the 1680s, Salem was going through a period of political unrest. Two families were battling for control: the Putnams and the Porters. The Putnams arrived in the early 1640s and were successful in acquiring large amounts of land. However by the late 1680s, their wealth and political influence were on the decline. In contrast, the Porters were, according to the 1680s census, wealthier and more affluent. The two families vied for control and had different plans for Salem’s future. The Putnams wanted to separate the village from the rest of Salem while the Porters wished to keep it unified. Each family had certain factions of control. For the Putnams, they had allies amongst the oldest families who knew them in their more affluent years. The Porters controlled the council and made friends with those who wished for a change in Salem’s priorities. As a result of rising tensions, many (but not all) members of Salem began to align themselves with one of these families. This was certainly the case with Dr. Griggs, who was connected to the Putnams by marriage(Hoffer 39-45). During the trials, Dr. Griggs fervently supported the “afflicted” girls, who included Ann Putnam and his own great-niece Elizabeth Hubbard (Dashiell). Another supporter of the Putnams was Pastor Samuel Parris who was at odds with the town committee, which was controlled by the Porters (Hoffer 53). With such powerful friends vying for control of both town and church, Dr. Griggs certainly felt pressure to make a diagnosis that would be beneficial to the Putnams which, by extension, would benefit him as well. 

The diagnosis of witchcraft would not have been as powerful if not for the influence of medicine in colonial America. When illness arose, women were commonly in charge of caring for the sick except when the illness was long lasting or too intense for basic herbal remedies. The study of formal medical practice had its roots in Europe, in particular the University of Edinburgh (Twiss). Far from Europe and its schools, many colonial doctors were not formally trained (Mann). At best, they worked as apprentices under formally trained doctors from England (Twiss 541). In addition, colonial doctors also battled lack of sanitation laws, shortage of drugs, and outdated medical knowledge (Twiss 541). Of Dr. Griggs, not much is known about his training as a physician. He originally came from Boston and was the first doctor to practice in Salem (Robinson 117). Most likely, he had little to no training in formal medicine (Dashiell). In fact, some historians believe that Dr. Griggs combined his limited medical knowledge with folk magic. In fact, ‘folk’ magic was had its origins in England and was used in the colonies on many occasions. Shortly after Griggs made his diagnosis but before any formal accusations, a form of folk magic, termed ‘white magic’ was attempted to discover the one responsible for the girls’ illness. Titubia and her husband John Indian baked a ‘witch cake’; this was fed to the dog of a suspected witch (a witch’s familiar). If successful, this mixture of ordinary meal and victim’s urine would reveal and hurt the witch (Konig 169). When Dr. Griggs’ diagnosis was known throughout Salem, such practices went under fire as being pure witchcraft. As a result, people looked even more towards medicine and the Puritan faith to guide them.

Religion and Medicine

Colonial Medicine was not only based on pure science; in fact, medicine often intertwined with religion, especially in a town founded on strict Puritanism. As a result, Reverend Parris and Dr. Griggs were two of the most powerful men in Salem (Robinson 136). When Betty first began to exhibit her unusual behavior, Parris and other ministers tried to invoke the power of prayer to heal her. When this failed to work, Parris called in the next highest power, a male physician, to make Betty better (Hoffer 62-63). When Dr. Griggs could find no physical explanations for the girls’ ailments, he put the blame on witchcraft. This was a serious accusation for at the time, English law (as of 1641) stated witchcraft was a capital offense (Krystek). Though serious, witchcraft was a common diagnosis for unexplainable illnesses; it was sometimes believed to be punishment from an angry God (Dashiell). Dr. Griggs’ initial diagnosis would not be the last; in fact records show Dr. Griggs repeating this diagnosis; in May of 1692, he accounted witchcraft as the cause of illness for Daniel Wilkin, Elizabeth Hubbard, Anne Putnam Jr., and Mary Walcott (Robinson 184&190). Though the people of Salem knew of witchcraft, it took an official diagnosis from a doctor for others to take action.  

Change in Salem

Life in Salem had always been difficult. The winters were very cold, the land was rocky and hard to farm, and the threat of disease and illness was constant (Krystek). King Phillip’s War was still fresh in the memories of the town people. They knew about the hundreds of men, women, and children killed in Native American raids. The town was kept in a constant state of fear, frightened by their close proximity to Native American settlements and at the possibilities of renewed attacks (Hoffer 55-56). As the external forces grew more threatening, the internal structure began to crumble. Salem was built on the ideas of harmony and the importance of a cooperative community. Puritanism was the glue that held this community together. The Bible was taken as a guide to life, down to the smallest details. To them, the Word of God was clarity, making a clear division of right and wrong, all in black and white terms (Erikson 47). But in the late 1600s, townspeople were drifting from the original principles of this community. The younger generations were less keen on spiritual matters, resulting in decreased church attendance and membership (Hoffer 53). Others turned their focus from a church centered life to one of worldly pursuits, delving into practices such as mercantilism and fulfilling individualistic needs and wants over those of the group (Hoffer 40). This drive towards mercantilism was propelled by one of the most prominent families in Salem: the Porters. They desired to unify the town not by a common belief but by a common market (Hoffer 45). For the other prominent, male members of the town (especially the Putnams and their supporters, including Dr. Griggs), there was a need for extreme reformation.

Witchcraft to bring Salem together?

The many who were unsatisfied with their way of life, particularly the women, were seen as a threat to their male driven society. This would become a prevalent fact when accusations began; women who did not follow the traditional role were often the first to be accused (Erikson 143). The clearest example was the first three women brought to court (accused of bewitching Betty and Abigail Paris), an action immediately influenced by Dr. Griggs’ diagnosis. Each woman exemplified qualities the leaders of Salem wished to eradicate. Tituba was a woman of color who dabbled in voodoo and was considered an unsavory influence on the younger girls. Sarah Good was an older woman with a sour disposition, creating discord with her neighbors. Sarah Osbourne did not attend church and was the center of a social scandal where it was rumored that she moved in with a man before marriage (Erikson 143). Getting rid of such independent and un-conforming women was made easier by the traditions known of witchcraft, the main one being that, more often than not, witchcraft was practiced primarily by women (Karlsen 39). Once the diagnosis was made public and the young girls began naming witches, women such as these, who did not follow the traditional roles that had been abided by for decades, would be cleansed from Salem.

The diagnosis of witchcraft was the perfect opportunity to bring Salem together. The word of witchcraft quickly spread amongst the small village and people began to come together in order to accuse/bear witness to the ‘witches’ plaguing their town. The hysteria created by these trials did not create total disorder. In fact, witchcraft became so imbedded in their society during this time that it highlighted the significance of the community. For many years prior, people had lost sight of the relevance of Puritanism in an increasingly economic driven world. So when a ‘professional’ medical verdict was announced, citizens responded to the validity but looked back to their Puritan roots. It reminded the Puritans of their participation in the cosmic struggle between good and evil (Demos 309-310). Finally, restoring the community under faith brought the control and conformity back to the church and the men who controlled it.

Conclusion

By the time the witch trials were ended in May of 1693, 141 people had been accused, 19 had been hung as witches, and 4 had died in jail (Krystek). The backdrop for these trials was made years before the first accusations. Struggles for power in the government were reaching their peak and the people were becoming increasingly dissatisfied with their life. Worse, people were drifting away from the faith that had kept them together since its founding. Dr. Griggs’ diagnosis of witchcraft was powerful enough to start such a radical movement because of the influence of medicine that was closely intertwined with religion and, in his case, powerful friends. His diagnosis was the real push that Salem needed to begin a Witch Hunt that would shake the town at its core and leave repercussions for years to come.

What do you think caused the Salem witch trials? Let us know below.

References

Dashiell, Beckie. Dr. William Griggs. Salem Witch Trials Documentary Archive and Transcription Project. University of Virginia, 2006. Web. 10 February 2014.

Demos, John Putnam. Entertaining Satan: Witchcraft and the Culture of Early England. New York: Oxford University Press, 1982. Print.

Erikson, Kai T. Wayward Puritans: A Study in the Sociology of Deviance. New York: John Wiley & Sons Inc., 1966. Print. 

Hoffer, Peter Charles. The Devil’s Disciples: Makers of the Salem Witchcraft Trials. Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1996. Print. 

Karlsen, Carol F. The Devil in the Shape of a Woman: Witchcraft in Colonial New England. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1987. Print.

Konig, David Thomas. Law and Society in Puritan Massachusetts: Essex County 1629-1692. University of North Carolina Press, 1979. Print.

Krystek, Lee. The Witches of Salem: The Events of 1692. The Museum of Unnatural History, 2006. Web. 11 February 2014. 

Mann, Laurie. Changing Medical Practices in Early America. Changing of Mapscape of West Boylston, 2013. Web. 15 March 2014. 

Robinson, Enders A. The Devil Discovered: Salem Witchcraft of 1692. Prospect Heights: Wavelands Press, 1991. Print. 

Twiss, J.R. “Medical Practice in Colonial America”. New York Academy of Medicine(1960) 533-551. Web. 16 March 2014. 

A Bird on Every Table: How Did Turkey Become the centerpiece of Thanksgiving?

There are a lot of things that might vary from table to table when it comes to Thanksgiving dinner. Some people prefer sweet potatoes to mashed potatoes. Others forgo the ubiquitous pumpkin pie in favor of pecan or cherry. However, there’s almost always one constant – that beautiful, golden brown, perfectly roasted turkey as the centerpiece. This is the case in regards to 88% of all American tables.

It only stands to reason that you’d have your questions as to “Why turkey?” – was turkey served at the first Thanksgiving? Even if it was, why is it so popular as to appear on nearly every menu no matter how much the other meal components might vary? Here we’ll explore everything you ever wanted to know about how turkey became the Thanksgiving superstar that it is.

Harry Parsons explains all.

The First Thanksgiving by Jean Leon Gerome Ferris, early 20th century.

Was Turkey Served at the First Thanksgiving?

Most people simply assume that turkey is the staple that it is because it was served at the first Thanksgiving way back in 1621. However, while the Pilgrims and the Wampanoag Native Americans most certainly did share a bountiful table in order to resolve their differences and celebrate the harvest, it’s not a given that they did it with turkey drumsticks in their hands.

According to Plimoth Plantation, most recorded accounts of the first Thanksgiving say absolutely nothing specific about a turkey being served. Most of them simply say that “fowl” was served, as well as various other proteins like wild venison. For instance, Englishman Edward Winslow had this to say:

“Our harvest being gotten in, our governor sent four men on fowling, that so we might after a special manner rejoice together after we had gathered the fruit of our labors. They four in one day killed as much fowl as, with a little help beside, served the company almost a week.”

That said, we know that the very first Thanksgiving table probably featured poultry of some kind. We also know that wild turkeys were plentiful in the area, so they’re certainly a possibility. However, so were a multitude of other options, including geese, ducks, and swans. Even eagles, hawks, or cranes are a distinct possibility.

When and How Did Thanksgiving Dinner Become All About Turkey?

If the Pilgrims and Wampanoag only maybe ate turkey at the first-ever Thanksgiving feast, then how on earth did it become the unofficial mascot of the holiday? Although no one knows absolutely, there is one really strong possibility as to why and how turkey became the star of the entire show.

The whole situation dates back to an 18th century American writer named Sarah Josepha Hale. Hale was born in New Hampshire in 1788 and was a highly popular editor in her day. She is also the person responsible for penning “Mary Had a Little Lamb.” Most importantly of all, Hale was a major role model for women, so many popular choices of the time in regards to fashion, literature, decorating, and cooking could be traced right back to Hale’s writing and influence.

This is exactly how Hale probably became responsible for Thanksgiving as we know it today. She was obsessed with the holiday and hoped to eventually make it a major national observance on par with Independence Day. She also, of course, had her own unique take on how the ideal Thanksgiving table should look and what should be served. Her novel Northwood would describe it as the following:

"[It] is considered as an appropriate tribute of gratitude to God to set apart one day of Thanksgiving in each year; and autumn is the time when the overflowing garners of America call for this expression of joyful gratitude.

The roasted turkey took precedence on this occasion, being placed at the head of the table; and well did it become its lordly station, sending forth the rich odor of its savory stuffing, and finely covered with the froth of the basting.”

As you can see, Hale’s ideal picture of a Thanksgiving feast included a turkey as the centerpiece. She continued to support that standard for Thanksgiving going forward as well. That said, when she eventually (posthumously) succeeded in having Thanksgiving established as a national holiday after 17 years of lobbying, it makes sense turkey would be a given.

This idea would continue to be reinforced and strengthened over the years by popular culture, as well as traditions like Ronald Reagan’s symbolic turkey pardoning, so turkey does take center stage for historic reasons. However, it’s not for the reasons most people think.

What Else Was Served at the First Thanksgiving?

As touched on above, in all likelihood you serve and eat turkey every Thanksgiving for reasons that have nothing to do with what was on the Pilgrim’s first feast table. That leaves one question. What was served and enjoyed at the first Thanksgiving? The following are some likely probabilities.

Venison: In addition to the possibility of turkeys, ducks, or geese, there were lots of other meats served. We know for a fact that one of them was venison, as Winslow’s account expressly stated that the Wampanoag arrived bearing five deer that were then roasted over a spit.

Seasonal Produce: The first Thanksgiving was primarily a celebration of the Pilgrims’ first harvest, so there most definitely would have been a bounty of freshly harvested produce served. Local vegetables that were likely to have appeared include but are not limited to corn, peas, carrots, beans, onions, lettuce, spinach, and cabbage. Fruits included plums, cranberries, blueberries, grapes, and gooseberries.

Seafood: Seafood was a huge dietary staple in New England in the 1600s as well, so historians believe that it probably comprised most of that first meal. Lobster, oysters, clams, and bass were probably all present. There may even have been a chowder or two served.

As far as things that most likely weren’t eaten, potatoes and sweet potatoes top the list, as they weren’t popular enough food sources among the English or the colonial settlers at that time. There probably wasn’t any pumpkin pie, either, as the flour and butter necessary to make it wouldn’t have been available, nor had the settlers constructed the ovens necessary for baking. Like turkey, those staples would enter the scene and become wildly popular later on.

So there you have it – the why and how of Thanksgiving dinner as you know it today! Probably not quite what you pictured, but historically significant all the same. Which foods will be gracing your table this year?

We hope you enjoyed the article! Let us know what you think below…

References

1.     http://urbanext.illinois.edu/turkey/turkey_facts.cfm

2.     http://www.plimoth.org/learn/MRL/read/thanksgiving-history

3.     https://www.arcadiapublishing.com/Products/9781609491864

4.     https://www.arcadiapublishing.com/Products/9781609492595