Bernardo O’Higgins and the Resurrection of Chile: To Rise and Fall Like Phaethon

The improbable lives of Ambrosio O’Higgins and his son, Bernardo, would change the history of South America forever. Two men, father and son, both strivers and achievers. Two men who did not take the traditional paths to power and high office. Two men, who through a series of improbable events, would both become, in their own ways, among the founders of the nation of Chile.  The chain of events would begin, of all places, in County Sligo in Ireland.

Erick Redington continues this series on the O’Higgins family by looking at the later life and incredible successes of Bernardo O’Higgins.

If you missed it read part one on Ambrosio O’Higgins’ life here, and part 2 on Bernardo O’Higgins’ early life here.

O'Higgins meeting Jose San Martin at the 1818 Battle of Maipu.

After the disaster at Rancagua, Bernardo, the remnant of his troops, and a core of supporters found themselves exiles over the Andes. He decided to bring his mother and sister along to Buenos Aires, the capital of the United Provinces of La Plata. La Plata had also been in revolt against Spain, but unlike the Chileans, they had been able to hold its own against attempts at reconquest. When it appeared the Spanish were going to attack Buenos Aires, Bernardo immediately volunteered to serve in La Plata’s army. He was sent west to Mendoza to prevent an invasion from royalist controlled Chile. While here, Bernardo would meet José de San Martín.

In North America, the United States had been able to achieve its independence with the mother country still on its northern border. The viewpoint in South America was radically different. Many of the leaders of the government in Buenos Aires and generals in the army like San Martín believed that none of the peoples of the continent could only be truly independent unless Spain was fully driven from South America. For San Martín, Chile and Peru would have to be secured and the Spanish driven out.

While in Mendoza, Bernardo would continue his military schooling. He asked friends to send him modern books on the art of war. He would devise elaborate and bold plans for the liberation of his homeland. One plan presented to San Martín called for a three-pronged offensive relying on a naval invasion as well as recruitment in Chile of local militia and over 6,000 local natives. This was indicative of Bernardo’s military thinking, bold, but overly complicated plans relying on multiple moving parts. San Martín was more practical minded. He wanted one army to cross the Andes and focus on the central region of Chile. Under his plan, San Martín would lead the Army of the Andes with two divisions led by Generals Miguel Soler and Bernardo O’Higgins. On January 9, 1817 the army was mobilized and began crossing the Andes. Events would move very quickly.

Andes crossing

The Andes is the longest above sea level mountain range in the world. The highest mountain is over 22,000 feet (almost 7,000 meters) tall. Even though the army crossed at the start of summer, it was not an easy journey. This journey and the legends attached to it would become one of the great historical epics of the Latin American wars of independence. Napoleon crossing the St. Bernard pass and Hannibal crossing the Alps with his elephants both went over less rough terrain than did the Army of the Andes. This was not an area where the army could live off the land. All supplies had to be carried. If it did not go perfectly, disaster would quickly result. Fortunately, the leadership of the Army of the Andes was superb, and the leadership was able to drive their men to cross this imposing mountain range in only a month, with the army intact. 

On February 4, 1817, forward elements of the army made first contact with the royalists in Chile. This took the royalist administration completely by surprise. They were not expecting an entire army to be able to cross the mountains undetected. San Martín had transported over 3,500 men into Chile. The royalist forces arrayed to meet them only numbered about 1,800 men. This was not a place the royalists were expecting an attack.

Battle of Chacabuco

On February 12, 1817, the Battle of Chacabuco began. The plan was to have Bernardo lead a diversionary attack while having General Soler deliver the main punch and destroy the royalist force. Whether it was from enthusiasm or impetuousness is disputed, but Bernardo led his men into a full-on attack against the royalists. This forced San Martín to speed up his plans and move Soler into battle earlier than anticipated. Although the battle was a resounding victory for the Army of the Andes, and hundreds of prisoners were taken, the royalist force was not destroyed and they were able to escape to the very south of Chile, where they would prove to be an irritant for a while longer.

The Battle of Chacabuco was typical Bernardo. He was a skilled commander and leader of men. He could throw a punch with the troops under his command. Enthusiastic for his men and his cause, he was driven to impetuosity. If he had made his attack only a diversion, as was originally planned, perhaps the remainder of the royalist force would have been eliminated. Many battles are won or lost on decisions made by commanders whether seize the initiative or strictly follow a plan. Although historians would argue over Bernardo’s decisions in this battle, the result was that the people of Chile gave him credit for the victory, and his star now shown brighter than ever. 

After the victory at Chacabuco, the royalists fled Santiago and retreated to their stronghold in Peru. On February 15th, an assembly of notables convened and elected a new governor of Santiago to replace the outgoing royalists. That person was José de San Martín. He, however, did not want the job. He was not Chilean and was loyal to his own country. San Martín sent a note refusing the position. In response, the next day the notables elected him again. Again, he refused. San Martín, and the leadership in Buenos Aires, wanted Bernardo. San Martín had written instructions from Buenos Aires that Bernardo was to be made leader of Chile. It had already been decided before the Army of the Andes even set out. The fact that Bernardo was the hero of Chacabuco only eased a result that was predetermined. The assembly of notables chose Bernardo to be the Supreme Director of Chile. This began what was called the Patria Nueva period of Chilean history. It would last until 1823.

The task facing Bernardo was daunting. The old revolutionary junta was gone. The assembly of notables was just an assembly, elected by no one. An entire government had to be created from scratch. Government ministries had to be built from the ground up. An army and navy had to be patched together out of scattered militias. Only a man of Bernardo’s boundless energy and enervated mind could have tackled this task. The son of the reforming viceroy would now, finally, be the reforming Supreme Director.

Leadership

Nothing happens without money. The new Chilean government needed money badly. To Bernardo, there was an obvious solution, and three days after his appointment, he ordered all royalist property in the country to be confiscated. The money that came from this property allowed for the funding of new government departments. “Battalion number 1 of the Army of Chile” was created, the first organized national army unit. An official government newspaper was created to turn out propaganda for the literate classes. Ever the scholar, Bernardo decreed the founding of a military academy. Bernardo was a reformer, and he was intent on establishing the Chilean state correctly from the start.

In his enthusiasm, there were darker elements. Early on, a government commission was created which would hold tribunal over every Chilean and their role in independence. Everyone in the country would have their patriotic and unpatriotic actions recorded. All Chileans needed to justify to the state, and their fellow citizens, the title of patriot. If you were not a patriot, you could be labeled a royalist and your property would be confiscated. Any Chilean who fled was automatically classified as a royalist. Bernardo’s hammer came down especially hard on the Church. Many priests and friars who preached obedience and loyalty to the Spanish King were exiled and the Church properties they oversaw confiscated. The Bishop of Santiago was even expelled, and Bernardo would appoint a replacement.

Another controversial act of Bernardo’s early reign was his participation in the founding of the Logia lautarina in Santiago. The Logia Lautarina was a shadowy, secret organization dedicated to the independence of South America. By the statutes of the Lautaro, as it became commonly known as, if any member became a government official, that person could take no action without consulting the lodge. Also, no major appointment could be made without lodge approval. Members of the Lautaro filled many government posts and held large numbers of army commissions. Many of these members were Argentines. From August 1817 until San Martín left Chile in August 1820, the public perception was that the Lautaro ran the country. Since perception can be reality for many people, a shadowy secret cabal from another country was the true power behind the Supreme Director, and thus Chile was not truly free. This resentment would only grow.

South

With the government beginning to stabilize, a problem in the south began to materialize. When the Spanish retreated from Chacabuco, they had retired to Talcahuano, about 300 miles (about 500km) from Santiago. While at Talcahuano, the royalist commander, General Ordóñez, had retrained his forces and reinforced to about 1,000 men. The Araucanians were favorably disposed to the royalists since the benevolent treatment they had received from Captain-General O’Higgins all those years before.  It was decided by the government (and the Lautaro) that Bernardo would delegate his office to Colonel Quintana, another member of the Lautaro, and proceed south with the army to defeat the royalists. 

The farther south Bernardo’s army marched, the worse it was. The army set out in April, which is mid-autumn in the southern hemisphere. The area had been stripped due to the constant fighting. The terrain was mountainous, and the threat of ambush was ever-present. The people of this region were predominantly royalist sympathizers, and coldly received the patriot army. The terrain around Talcahuano seemed tailor made for defense. Hills surround the port, which was situated on a jutting point of land. Thirty guns stood ready to shoot down any attackers. Since they were marching in autumn, rains turned the roads into mud tracks. In keeping character, Bernardo developed an elaborate plan which called for a diversionary frontal assault which would cover for an amphibious landing against the town itself. Due to the horrible conditions, the boats prepared for the landing could not be brought into position. Despite this, also keeping to character, Bernardo ordered the frontal assault to commence anyway. Progress was made, including taking southern positions and separating the royalists from their Araucanian allies. The next day, however, the royalists were still in position and Ordóñez still had fight left in him. Faced with worsening conditions and dwindling numbers due to casualties and attrition, Bernardo ordered his army to retreat to Concepción. 

The fight in the south now devolved into guerrilla warfare with burning villages and atrocity causing reprisal causing atrocity and the cycle grew ever bloodier. After another failed attempt to take Talcahuano, Bernardo decided to try a new tactic: diplomacy. As the head of state, he felt that perhaps the benevolent intervention of a third party would convince the Spanish to end their attempts to reconquer their former colony. He wrote to the Prince Regent of Britain, the future George IV. Bernardo offered to open the ports of Chile to British trade and investment. Nothing came of this at the time, but many would see this as part of what they interpreted as Bernardo’s attempt to turn Chile into the England of South America. 

With no response forthcoming from the British, the bad news kept coming. The Carreras, Bernardo’s old rivals for power in Chile, were back. The Lautaro, was becoming more unpopular, and Colonel Quintana, the acting Supreme Director, along with it. Even Bernardo was becoming concerned about the attitude of the country. Worst of all, the royalists were embarking on another expedition from Peru to reconquer Chile. Fortunately for Bernardo, San Martín, who had attempted to go home in retirement, had returned to Chile and was ready to take command once more. To prevent any Chileans from being cut off, the army facing Ordóñez was withdrawn north. 

Independence

It was at this time that Bernardo decided to take the ultimate step in Chile’s relationship with Spain. Officially, the Chileans were fighting for their rights under the Spanish crown. During the retreat, while at the city of Talca, Bernardo signed the Chilean Declaration of Independence, with no ties whatsoever to the Spanish king. To Bernardo, this represented not some mythologized breaking with the past, but as a way of telling all Chileans that there was now no turning back. There would be no return to Spanish rule. 

In order to support this new declaration, San Martín marched south and reinforced Bernardo’s army to a total of 6,600 men. This force gave the Chileans enough to press the royalists back. After some jockeying for position, the royalists decided their only hope of survival was a frontal night attack. As many of the royalist troops were veterans of the Peninsular War, they had much more experience night fighting than their colonial adversaries. Although outnumbered, on March 16, 1818, the royalists achieved a complete victory, killing, wounding, or dispersing almost half of San Martín’s army. When his division was shattered, Bernardo received a wound in the arm which took months to fully heal. Much of the demoralization among the rebel troops came from rumors that both Bernardo and San Martín had been killed. Much of the Argentine artillery train had been captured, and the patriot army had lost significant amounts of supplies. This battle, the Second Battle of Cancha Rayada was the only defeat the patriots would suffer during the campaign, but it was such a shock and so complete a defeat that there was talk amongst the remainder of the army about retreating across the Andes. Even in his wounded state, Bernardo refused. “As long as I remain alive and have a single Chilean to follow me, I shall go on fighting against the enemy in Chile,” he is attributed to have said. 

The rumors of death in the army’s leadership, along with the panic of the populace provided the perfect opportunity for the return of the Carreras, Bernardo’s old nemeses. In order to secure his position, a still wounded and somewhat feverish, Bernardo rode for Santiago. On March 24th, only eight days after the Battle of Cancha Rayada, Bernardo formally took up his office of Supreme Director again. The wounded revolutionary hero cut a dashing figure, and his very presence and authority was enough to prevent any move by the Carrerists. 

Bernardo had no intention of staying away from battle for long. The royalists were advancing toward Valparaíso. Bernardo used his moral and legal authority to organize supplies, weapons, and provisions for every available man who could be made to fight. When the royalists arrived, the Battle of Maipú was fought on April 5th. Though this battle only lasted two hours, it would finally remove the threat from the royalists in the south. While the patriots lost about 1,000 men, the royalist army was annihilated. This victory, so short and decisive, would finally end the royalist military threat to Chile.

The consummation of Chilean independence increased the wrath, and the plotting, of the Carrerists. The younger brothers of José Miguel began plotting to invade Chile and either install the senior Carrera as head of state or begin an insurgency to overthrow Bernardo. When the two younger brothers arrived in Mendoza, they were captured and placed on trial. Although prominent Chileans attempted to intervene, and US Consul William Worthington pled the Carreras’ case, Bernardo was unmoved, as was San Martín. After news arrived of the defeat at Cancha Rayada, the people of Mendoza panicked, and the local administration decided on the execution of the brothers. They were informed of their sentences and that they would die by firing squad. Four hours after the sentence was served, a message arrived from San Martín announcing the victory at Maipú and calling for an end to the prosecution of the Carreras. 

Feuds

Although there is no direct evidence that Bernardo ordered their executions, the people of Chile believed that he had. The Carreras were not very popular throughout the country at large, but that members of the nation’s elite could be executed on the word of the Supreme Director was disturbing to many. Further, many people also blamed the sinister influence of the Lautaro. Protests began in the capital. A mob of angry citizens, stirred up by Carrerists, broke into the courtyard of the Supreme Director’s palace. The leaders of the mob were arrested, but Bernardo’s position as national leader began to feel shaky.

Next was Manuel Rodríguez, a guerilla leader and former secretary to the old junta that both Carrera and Bernardo had been members of. When Rodríguez began to become more dangerous to the nation’s stability, Bernardo offered to pay to send him to either Europe or North America. Rodríguez appeared to accept, but went into hiding, participating in the aborted Carrera brothers’ conspiracy. When Rodríguez was finally captured and placed under arrest, the time-honored excuse of “shot while trying to escape” was used to justify what was an execution in all but name. Whether Bernardo had anything to do with it was immaterial. The people believed that he and the Lautaro orchestrated the murder. 

From his perch in Montevideo, José Miguel was driven by bitter hatred and a desire for revenge not only against Bernardo, but against his Argentine backers as well. Letters and pamphlets were written calling for the overthrow of the government in Santiago. In Buenos Aires, governmental instability led to a change in leadership. The new leaders invited José Miguel to form the Legión Chilena, a force dedicated to overthrowing the Supreme Director and taking power. As would regularly happen, another new government quickly took power in Buenos Aires, and Carrera, along with his Legión, had to take to the countryside. When his troops had plundered their way to Mendoza, the governor there was able to defeat Carrera and capture him. He was expeditiously tried by court martial, convicted and executed. Bernardo should have been able to breath a sigh of relief. After all, his most bitter domestic enemy was gone, and its faction was decapitated. The resentment from the Chilean elite, however, only increased against Bernardo.

Invasion

The struggle with Spain continued without the Carreras. In November 1818, perhaps the most important appointment of Bernardo’s tenure as Supreme Director came when he appointed Lord Cochrane as Vice Admiral and Commander of the Chilean Navy. The strange and mercurial Cochrane would go on to fight with much of the Chilean government, but Bernardo recognized his talents and hoped that an Englishman could build the best navy in South America. Cochrane’s brilliance in blockading the Spanish fleet based in Peru would make Chile free from threat of naval invasion from Spanish royalists.

With the Spanish Navy neutralized, now was time for the final act of liberation, the invasion of Peru. On August 10, 1820, the Army of the Liberation of Peru embarked on ships of the Chilean navy for a seaborne invasion of the final royalist stronghold. Bernardo believed that the army had only to show itself, and the people of Peru would greet them as liberators. Through a series of daring attacks along the Peruvian coast, royalist defenses were weakened. The councils of the royalists were divided. Some called for a life-or-death defense of Lima, the premier city of Spanish America. Others wanted a retreat north into the mountains. In the end, little effective defense was made. On July 2, 1821, the patriots entered Lima without having to fight for the city. Unfortunately, San Martín allowed the defenders to escape to the north to fight another day. 

San Martín would have to pursue the royalists. This protracted the war. He began sending message after message to Bernardo back in Chile requesting supplies. The Chileans were promised the army would live off the country and resented having to pay for another’s liberation, little remembering that their liberation would have been nearly impossible without the help of the Army of the Andes. Resentment grew, and the natural focus for that resentment was the Supreme Director. 

Despite the continuing war, as well as occasional royalist bandits and Araucanian attacks, Bernardo was determined to reform his country and mold it into his image. Criminals and royalist prisoners were tasked with building roads and canals planned since the time of his father’s Captain-Generalcy. Schools were built to educate youth. While the improvements may have been popular, using prisoners was seen as heavy handed, and the funds for them had to be extracted through loans and taxes, already considered too high to begin with. Bernardo’s popularity continued to decrease. Needing to do something to bring stability to the country and improve his position with the citizenry, he issued a proclamation calling for elections for a new national assembly. 

Two years after the invasion of Peru, San Martín and Bolivar met at Guayaquil. Afterward, San Martín finally went into retirement. But the war still went on. The Chilean army was still far from home. Lord Cochrane had, by this time, withdrawn from his fleet to his estate. Taxes were too high. The Carrera faction was still making rumbles against him. On November 19th, an estimated 8.5 magnitude earthquake struck Valparaiso, damaging much of the city.  Many in the country saw the earthquake as a sign that the leadership of Chile, especially the Supreme Director, had lost God’s favor.

Rebels

The man that all opposition looked to was Bernardo’s old friend Ramón Freire. The two had fought together for years against the royalists. Both had been in the Army of the Andes and participated in its greatest triumphs. Bernardo appointed his friend as Intendant of Concepción. Over time, however, the two had a falling out and Freire began to grow frustrated with both his position and with his former friend. He would eventually resign in 1822. When Concepción went into open rebellion against the Supreme Director, Bernardo wrote to him, asking for his help in calming the situation. Instead, Freire voiced his support for the people of Concepción, and denounced Bernardo for acting against the wishes of the people. Other areas began rising in solidarity with Concepción.

Bernardo attempted to placate the rebels. Some economic reforms were repealed. A few unpopular ministers resigned.  Bernardo called on Freire to send delegates to negotiate and end the uprising. By now, the whole country had turned against Bernardo. Led by the Intendant of Santiago, an assembly was called together for January 28, 1823. After a delegation had met with Bernardo and been “roughly treated,” the assembly grew anxious and angry. They were afraid Bernardo would disperse them by force. Once it looked like force would be used by both sides, members of the assembly and Bernardo agreed to meet. The assembly called for him to resign. Bernardo refused. Then a letter was brought to him explaining that no agreement could be had with Freire in the south. After reading the letter, Bernardo resigned as Supreme Director. 

After resigning, Bernardo was placed under house arrest. Many Carreristas were openly calling for his execution. He had a collapse in his health, causing headaches and temporary loss of sight. Six months after his resignation, he was finally allowed out of house arrest and allowed to leave the country. His original destination was to be Ireland. He would live out the rest of his life in his ancestral homeland. But it was not to be. While stopped in Peru, Bolívar asked Bernardo to stay in the country to bolster the new nation’s independence movement. This, to Bernardo’s disappointment, did not include a military command.

Exile

Bernardo would spend 18 years living in Peru as an exile. He would manage his estates with moderate success. These were gifts from Bolivar to help ease the hero’s retirement. He lived long enough to see the political chaos his country had fallen into. Some Chileans would attempt to get him to return and take control again. He would refuse every offer. He would even attempt to mediate during a war between Chile and the Peru-Bolivian Confederation. Several times, he considered writing a biography of his father. “Doing justice to his memory,” he called it. He would never write it.

Over time, Bernardo’s image in Chile improved. Chile needed its heroes. The government gave him his old rank of Captain-General back, although his promised accompanying pension was slow in coming. President Manuel Bulnes of Chile wrote to Bernardo requesting he return to his homeland. Bernardo was, as usual, enthusiastic. Passage to Chile aboard ship was purchased. Upon reaching the port of Callao, Bernardo suffered a heart attack. Recovery was difficult, but two months later, he felt well enough to travel. Once passage was booked a second time, he suffered a second heart attack. He would never see his homeland. On October 23, 1842, Bernardo passed away at the age of 64. His ashes were buried under a monument recounting his greatness.

Bernardo O’Higgins is considered one of the three men primarily responsible for the liberation of Spanish South America, along with Bolívar and San Martín. He led his country through difficult and turbulent times. He was a brave general and a brilliant leader of men. He was a driven reformer whose improvements and modernization laid the foundations for future greatness. After he was exiled, the chaos that he feared engulfed his country. He was a man driven to strive for success in all things. For Bernardo, perhaps his greatest achievement was that all these traits that can be described of him could have easily been ascribed to his father as well. He was truly the heir to his father’s legacy.

What do you think of Bernando O’Higgins’ life? Let us know below.

Now, read about Francisco Solano Lopez, the Paraguayan president who brought his country to military catastrophe in the War of the Triple Alliance here.

Further Reading

Clissold, Stephen. Bernardo O’Higgins and the Independence of Chile. Frederick A. Praeger, Inc., 1968.

Kinsbruner, Jay. Bernardo O’Higgins. Twayne Publishers, 1968.

Bernardo O’Higgins and the Founding of Chile: The Fight for Legitimacy

The improbable lives of Ambrosio O’Higgins and his son, Bernardo, would change the history of South America forever. Two men, father and son, both strivers and achievers. Two men who did not take the traditional paths to power and high office. Two men, who through a series of improbable events, would both become, in their own ways, among the founders of the nation of Chile. The chain of events would begin, of all places, in County Sligo in Ireland.

Erick Redington continues this series on the O’Higgins family by looking at the earlier life and military career of Bernardo O’Higgins.

If you missed it read part one on Ambrosio O’Higgins’ life here.

The charge of O’Higgins at the 1814 Battle of Rancagua.

Bernardo O’Higgins today is seen as one of the founding fathers of Chile and, along with San Martín and Bolivar, is housed in the highest pantheon of South American liberators. Yet from seemingly obscure beginnings, this man who had to fight to be recognized by his own father would fight to make his nation recognized on the world stage.

Bernardo’s story begins with his father Ambrosio O’Higgins. Ambrosio, an unmarried member of the Spanish colonial administration in the Captaincy-General of Chile, had impregnated the daughter of one of his friends, Isabel Riquelme. The young Bernardo would have the last name Riquelme until his father died. This did not mean that Ambrosio refused to recognize his son. As an ennobled Spanish aristocrat, Ambrosio came from a culture that recognized illegitimate children would sometimes arise from liaisons with lower social classes existed and that the father, while not necessarily recognizing the official parentage of the child, could provide for the child in some way without losing too much face. This is what Ambrosio did for Bernardo. 

The Riquelme family was from Chillián, a small city in south-central Chile. During the 18th century, this area was full of rich agricultural land, but was also a backwater of a colonial backwater. Chile was part of the Viceroyalty of Peru, and with little infrastructure and horrific terrain for travel, this was not a place to rise to greatness. Ambrosio recognized this, and decided to fund his son’s education, including paying for Bernardo to leave his hometown, and get a more worldly education. Bernardo would be placed with Juan Albano Pereira, friends of Ambrosio’s in Mendoza (now in Argentina, but then part of Chile) who had mercantile connections with Ambrosio. After some time with the Albanos, Bernardo was sent to a Franciscan Monastery for a short time before going to Lima, the capital of Peru. Although he would make contacts in Lima that would last him a lifetime, Bernardo’s time there was unhappy. Although there are passing reports of the two men meeting, father and son had no confirmed meetings though both were obviously aware of their relationship. An illegitimate child could be supported in this environment but could not be brought too close. After only a year, Bernardo was sent to Europe to both get him out of the way, and to provide him with a better education. 

London

Ironically, Ambrosio chose as the destination for his son Great Britain, the same country he had fled all those years before as a poor, oppressed Irish farmer. London at this time was one of the most cosmopolitan cities in the world. English radicals, French royalists, embittered revolutionaries, and political dissidents of all stripes crowded the coffee houses and pubs of London. Relative freedom of the press allowed for ideas banned in other nations to be widely disseminated. It was also during the French Revolutionary Wars. The ideals of the French Revolution were sweeping Europe, and for a young and ambitious man like Bernardo, the intellectual atmosphere was exciting. As a man with something to prove, the revolutionary times provided opportunities. 

One of the people who would have the most impact on Bernardo’s life at this time was Francisco Miranda. This Venezuelan revolutionary was a man with infinite plots and schemes in mind to liberate the peoples of South America. Called by some as the Moses of the South American Revolutions, his boundless drive and energy would inspire all the great leaders of Spanish America’s revolutionary generation. Miranda would begin corresponding with Bernardo and would write in a teacher-student style that Bernardo, desperate for a father figure, would take to strongly. 

Due to financial struggles, Bernardo was forced to leave Britain and eventually return to Chile. In 1800, he began his journey which became a small epic of attempts to escape the British blockade (Spain, by this time was allied to France against Britain) and contracting yellow fever, during which Bernardo was so close to death he was read last rites. When he arrived, Bernardo was forced to stay with his old friends, the Albanos, to recover his health. Bernardo was not the only one who was in declining health. His father, Ambrosio, would die only a few months after Bernardo’s return. The man he had so much wanted to impress was now gone forever. Ambrosio did not neglect his son in his will. He left Bernardo a hacienda named Canteras at La Laja in Southern Chile, including 3,000 head of cattle. This was not insignificant for a young man who had to live poor in London only a short time before. It was also at this time that Bernardo Riquelme began adopting his father’s last name O’Higgins. When Bernardo took control of the estate, he settled into the life of a now gentleman farmer. It would be the quietest seven years of his life.  Bringing the latest agricultural science he learned in Europe, the hacienda immediately began to prosper greater than it ever had before. Later in life, Bernardo would reflect on the happiness of this time. The times of peace could not last, however.

King Carlos IV

In the first decade of the 19th century, Spain was governed by King Carlos IV and his prime minister, Manuel Godoy. Spain had been an ally of France since the mid-1790s and had come to be dominated by Napoleon’s French Empire. By the middle of the decade, Napoleon began to worry about the reliability of his ally to the south. Carlos IV and Godoy were both incredibly incompetent and cartoonishly corrupt in their administration of both Spain and the global Spanish Empire. The wealth and resources of the empire were wasted though inefficiency and corruption. Napoleon had created the new law code for France, the Code Napoleon, and had turned France into the preeminent military power of the time. He believed that some Napoleonic efficiency brought to Spanish administration would be more helpful to his cause of dominating Europe than the unexcelled stupidity of the current regime.

In 1808, Carlos IV was forced to abdicate the throne by his son, the future Fernando VII. Carlos then appealed to his ally Napoleon, to restore him to the throne. Napoleon, seeing this as an opportunity to rid himself of this pest, agreed to mediate between father and son, promptly detained both, forced them both to renounce the throne, and placed his own brother King Joseph of Naples on the Spanish throne as King Jose I. 

When word reached the people of Spain of the Abdications of Bayonne (where the mediation had taken place), Spain erupted in revolution. An uprising in Madrid, known to history as Dos de Mayo left hundreds of Spanish civilians dead. Stories of French atrocities began to spread. Civil order broke down in the country and armies appeared to resist French occupation and Napoleon’s puppet king. Revolutionary leaders organized themselves into juntas to fill the gap left in administration. The British began aiding these juntas, and they also decided that independence movements in Spanish America could be used to weaken Napoleon’s ally. A Supreme Junta was established in Seville, ruling in the name of Fernando VII and there were now rival governments vying for the loyalty of Spaniards.

Revolution

Revolutionary thought had already reached Spanish America at this time. Enlightenment philosophies and French revolutionary thought were in vogue throughout Spanish America. Another source of revolutionary attitudes was the dramatic increase in the popularity of Masonic lodges, which would play a significant role in South American independence. Bernardo had been first exposed to many of these ideas while in Britain. Now, divided loyalties among the people led to a situation where everyone had to take sides.

The President of Chile (the acting head of government in the colony) was Brigadier General García Carrasco. He was a military man. By 1809, the situation within Chile had become revolutionary. Support for the Supreme Junta and Fernando VII was seen as a way to safely oppose García Carrasco. On May 25, 1810, the military administration moved against the supporters of Fernando VII and arrested several prominent citizens, who were ordered by the general into exile. After a power struggle with prominent Chileans, the general was forced to resign. With this resignation, the people of Santiago, the capital, began preparations for the creation of a junta for Chile. As many reasoned at the time, the colonies in the Americas belonged to the king, not to Spain. Therefore, if Juntas were being created all over Spain to rule in his name, then it would be only natural for them to be created in the colonies as well. In Buenos Aires, a Junta had taken control the Viceroyalty of Rio de la Plata. Many in Chile wanted to do the same.

During all this international commotion, Bernardo was civil governor of La Laja. During a previous war scare, he had offered to raise two regiments of cavalry for defense against the British. In 1811, the Junta named him Lieutenant Colonel of the Second Regiment of Cavalry of La Laja. At this time, he was already set on the path that, he believed, a revolution should take. Meeting with other leaders, Bernardo pressed for two immediate objects: the calling of a Congress together and the loosening of restrictions on trade to improve the economy. Freer trade was easily accomplished, and a Congress was called, at this point in the name of Ferdinand VII, to create a new government for Chile. For the new Congress, Bernardo was elected as a member for Los Angeles. With the opening of Congress, many issues came to the forefront. Rivalry between Santiago and Concepción. A failed royalist coup. The most embarrassing for the new Congress was the arrival of HMS Standard, a British warship on a mission for Fernando VII. A message was given to Congress requesting delegates be sent to a new Cortes in Spain. Chile, and the other colonies, were to receive seats in the Spanish legislature. Of course, a large financial contribution was expected to accompany the delegates. The Congress existed and acted explicitly in the name of the king. To accept would be to reaffirm their loyalty to Spain, which not everyone wanted to do. To refuse would be rank hypocrisy. Congress would delay long enough to make the issue moot.

Accompanying the Standard was one José Carrera. Son of a member of the Supreme Junta, he was extremely ambitious, and saw Chile as the perfect field for his ambition. He began conspiring with radicals in Congress, called the Eight Hundred, to remove the moderates to bring forward the cause of independence. On September 1, 1811, the moderates were driven out of Congress, and radicals assumed the positions of power. After the coup, the radicals sidelined Carrera and his family. Now with the precedent set that might, not law, would be the ultimate arbiter of power in Chile, Carrera then arrested men of the Eight Hundred and made himself dictator. Members of Congress then demanded Carrera make an account of himself before them. When he did, Carrera berated Congress and a few hours later disbanded Congress. Chile had had three coups in ten weeks. All Bernardo could do was resign his seat.

The south, and Concepción in particular resisted Carrera. The dictator then turned to Bernardo to help smooth over the situation. Concepción controlled most of the military resources of the country, and Carrera needed this region to solidify his control. Playing on Bernardo’s patriotism, Carrera was able to convince him to go south. After negotiation and a draft agreement which Carrera stalled in implementing, Bernardo realized he was being played and went into open opposition. He placed himself under the orders of the leader of the south, Juan Rozas. When Rozas’ government collapsed, Bernardo returned to his hacienda fed up with the state of affairs. He was an idealistic revolutionary who had run into the wall of practical politics and power struggles. He wanted independence but saw his country falling into infighting. 

Spain returns

This self-imposed retirement did not last very long. In 1813, Spain made its first attempt to reconquer Chile. Invading first in the south, Concepción fell quickly to the Spanish. Of all the colonies in South America, Peru was probably the most royalist. The Viceroy decided now was the time to reestablish control. Carrera called Bernardo to command his cavalry regiment. Bernardo swiftly took command and led a force of troops south to engage the royalists. At Linares, Bernardo’s force encountered the royalists, charged, and drove them out of the town. This was the first battle of the war, and it would bring Bernardo promotion and make his name more well known. 

After Linares, the situation in the south bogged down. Terrain was terrible for the linear warfare of the early 19th century. The three divisions of the reinforced southern army were under different Carrera brothers. The dictator was rapidly losing credibility. After the royalists attacked and defeated the Chilean advanced guard, Carrera was forced to abandon the best defensive positions in front of Santiago. At the Battle of El Roble, Carrera abandoned the field, and a wounded Bernardo rallied the retreating troops and led them to an astounding victory. The junta back in the capital then demanded Carrera give up control of the army. Carrera denounced the junta and his brothers threatened to march on the junta, just as they had Congress previously. The junta was finally able to get enough courage to decree Carrera’s dismissal and made Bernardo the Commander-in-Chief of the Chilean army. At first reluctant to take the command as he did not believe in the prudence of changing command in the middle of a war, Bernardo was convinced and accepted. 

Although he had reached the highest position in the Chilean army, it was not to last. Bernardo would only command about 1,800 men who were lacking in almost every supply including weapons and ammunition. A lack of horses meant that artillery was pulled by the soldiers. The royalist army, though no better supplied had morale and initiative on its side.                   When a royalist army was approaching another Chilean force under Juan Mackenna, an old friend and also of Irish extraction, Bernardo took his army to relieve Mackenna. When their armies were joined, Bernardo would lead the army in a race with the royalists to reach Santiago. Both sides, by this point, were tired of campaigning. Both sides were exhausted. Negotiations began between the royalists from Peru and the junta governing Chile. Bernardo and Mackenna negotiated for the Chileans. The result was the Treaty of Lircay. In this treaty, the Chileans restated their loyalty to Fernando VII, under whose name they were fighting anyway. They also agreed to send representatives to the Cortes and money to Spain. Chile was to be integrated into Spain. The major concession the rebels were able to get was recognition of the junta. Both sides seemed to be blaming the whole war on a misunderstanding caused by Carrera. 

War returns

This was nothing more than a temporary truce. The Viceroy in Lima denounced his commander who negotiated the treaty. About 5,000 reinforcements were sent to Chile to suppress the rebels. On the Chilean side, the Carreras were offended by the treaty and acted. On July 23, 1814, Jose Carrera overthrew the government, again, and quickly acted to extend his power over the rebel cause. Bernardo was faced with a dilemma. He was not happy with the treaty and wanted to see Chile freed from Spanish domination. As commander-in-chief, he also knew that the country needed a respite from the fighting. There was also the issue of Carrera himself. This was now the third time he had used force to remove his opponents. Bernardo could not abide this. He would march his troops on Santiago and remove Carrera himself. On August 26, only a month after the signing of the treaty, the forces of Carrera and Bernardo met at the battle of Las Tres Acequias. The two forces met in an engagement among the advanced guards with Carrera’s troops pushed back. Bernardo became confident and ordered an attack with his main force. When the attack failed, his troops began retreating in disorder. When Carrera sent in his cavalry to pursue, it broke what was left of Bernardo’s line and the army began to flee south. 

After the battle, Bernardo learned that the royalists had landed their army from Peru and were marching on Santiago. He reached out to Carrera to put aside their differences and unite to defend the country. Both men, after all, believed in the independence of Chile from the Spanish. It was all for naught. When the Chileans united their forces under Bernardo’s control, they were still outnumbered by the royalists. Infighting had sapped their strength. On October 1, what became known in Chile as the Disaster of Rancagua occurred. The Chilean army was a motley assortment of men ill fed and equipped. The royalist army contained veterans of the Napoleonic Wars from Europe, which were now over. These men had been fighting for six years and knew war on a larger scale than the Chileans did. The Chileans were simply no match for the royalists. Nearly surrounded by the royalists, no reinforcements to be hoped for, and the town he was defending on fire, Bernardo was forced to withdraw from battle. It only took a few days for the royalists to make the distance to Santiago and take the city, the Chilean army was so defeated. 

For Bernardo, there was nothing left. The government had been overthrown. The army, his army, was annihilated. For himself, and the leaders of Chilean independence, their country was lost to them. The leaders began to go into exile, fleeing to other areas not under control of the Spanish. Bernardo would flee across the Andes and into La Plata, not knowing what the future held.

What do you think of Bernando O’Higgins’ earlier life and the war? Let us know below.

Now, read part 3 about the later life of Bernardo O’Higgins and how Chilean independence was earned here.

Further Reading

Clissold, Stephen. Bernardo O’Higgins and the Independence of Chile. Frederick A. Praeger, Inc., 1968.

Kinsbruner, Jay. Bernardo O’Higgins. Twayne Publishers, 1968.

From Emigrant to Viceroy: The Life of Ambrosio O’Higgins

The improbable lives of Ambrosio O’Higgins and his son, Bernardo, would change the history of South America forever. Two men, father and son, both strivers and achievers. Two men who did not take the traditional paths to power and high office. Two men, who through a series of improbable events, would both become, in their own ways, among the founders of the nation of Chile.  The chain of events would begin, of all places, in County Sligo in Ireland.

Erick Redington starts this series on the O’Higgins family by looking at Ambrosio O’Higgins’ extraordinary life, and how he went from an emigrant to Chile to Viceroy.

Ambrosio O’Higgins.

The Ireland that Ambrose O’Higgins was born into was a sad one for the formerly great noble Irish families. During the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, the O’Higgins family had lost its land due to confiscations by Oliver Cromwell and the English Commonwealth government. This reduced the members of the family to poverty and working for others, mainly Protestant settlers who were given the Irish lands to break the power of the landed, Catholic, Irish aristocracy. Irish Catholics were subject to laws restricting religious, political, and property rights to encourage conversion and assimilation. Despite this, many of the O’Higgins clan refused to convert and assimilate.

From the time when Henry VIII declared the creation of the Church of England and began to enforce Protestantism on his kingdom, official persecution of Catholics caused many Irish to emigrate. Many of these Irish were looking primarily for the right to worship as Catholics. This caused many to look to, arguably, the most rigorously Catholic nation in Europe, Spain. The Spanish government was more than happy to take in Irish men and women seeking refuge from religious persecution.

To Spain

While religion was the primary motivation, there were others as well. Spain in the 16th and 17th centuries owned a large proportion of the Western Hemisphere. The modern northern border of California to the southern tip of South America at Tierra del Fuego was largely Spanish territory (Brazil and a few other territories excepted). This was the land of Cortes and Pizzaro, the Aztecs and the Inca. It was also the riches of the Potosí mine, so rich in silver that it caused hyper-inflation in Europe and the gold of Mexico. There were limitless economic possibilities in the Spanish Empire. A combination of the push factors of persecution and land confiscation in Ireland and the pull factors of Catholic freedom and economic opportunity led many Irish to choose emigration to Spain. A young Ambrose would be just one of thousands of these emigrants.

Probably born in 1720, though no one really knows for sure, young Ambrose O’Higgins was forced to work on the farms and estates of others to earn his living. Much of the early life of Ambrose is unknown. Although he would make much in later life about his lineage from the great O’Neill family and would even commission a genealogical survey, little can really be known for sure. What is known is that Ambrose begins appearing in the historical records in 1757 after leaving Spain for South America, when he was about 37 years old. Later, he would claim that he first arrived in Cádiz in 1751. Cádiz was a window to the world for young Ambrose. It was one of the home ports for the Spanish Navy, one of the largest in the world. It was also one of the primary ports for trade with the new world. Every year, hundreds of ships would arrive carrying the wealth of the New World. In Cádiz, Ambrose was able to find work, and his natural brilliance and energy would show to his employers. In 1756, Ambrose, now Ambrosio, left Spain for South America. This appears to be a business trip, an assignment for the bank in Cádiz he worked for. In a time of slow communications and the ease of a person disappearing, this was a position of trust the bank gave to Ambrosio. They must have recognized some drive and talent in him to send him off.

While on this first trip to South America, Ambrosio would see many of the great cities of South America: Buenos Aires, Asunción, and Lima. For a man with business acumen and a striving mentality, the possibilities young Ambrosio saw were endless. When he returned to Spain several years later, after his business trip was over, he petitioned the Spanish government to grant him permission to trade in the colonies. The Spain of the 1760s was rife with corruption and sloth due to administrative decay. Without patrons, Ambrosio would have a difficult time gaining official sanction. Another Irishman, John Garland, was a military engineer being transferred to the Captaincy-General of Chile, an administrative division of the Viceroyalty of Río de la Plata. Garland, recognizing the talent and drive of his friend, offered him a position on his staff, which Ambrosio readily accepted. The problem for a young, relatively poor civil servant in Spain at the time was the cost of maintaining office. As corruption was almost expected, salaries were very low. To pay for his transit to America, and then over the Andes Mountains, Ambrosio would bring to South America goods from the mother country to sell to the colonials. This would be the start of Ambrosio’s fortune. 

Chile

When he arrived in South America, Garland wanted to take the trip to Chile at a leisurely pace. Given the pace of travel in the 1760s, crossing the Andes in winter would be difficult at best and suicidal at worst. Ambrosio, however, had drive. Whether it was bravery or foolhardiness is up for debate, but regardless, Ambrosio crossed the Andes in winter with only a few porters for the baggage and arrived at his destination. For most people, a difficult journey would simply be another chapter in the story, an interesting anecdote and nothing else. For Ambrosio, it would set him on the path to all the heights he would achieve. 

Ambrosio’s assignment took him to Chile, a mountainous strip of territory on the western coast of South America. Overland travel between La Plata and Chile was difficult at the best of times due to the difficult terrain. One of the primary reasons for the separate political administration of Chile was due to its isolation from the colonial authorities in Buenos Aires. Ambrosio’s idea was to develop a way to keep the passes open in winter to safeguard travelers and keep trade open all year around. It sounds like a small idea to modern ears, but for the people of Chile, it was a matter of life and death. Due to transport and logistical issues, Chile was the most remote and underdeveloped of Spain’s American colonies. If Ambrosio could succeed in opening the Andes, the vast natural resources of Chile could be transformed into vast amounts of wealth. For a man with a natural business acumen, the attractiveness of this prospect seems obvious. For the Spanish government, improving communications between La Plata and Chile would have the benefit of tying the area to the colonial administration in Buenos Aires. A further benefit would be military. The movement of troops would be much easier with open roads and waystations. The primary route of travel and communication was through the Straits of Magellan, one of the most notoriously bad seas to sail in the world. 

Ambrosio was not only looking for business possibilities. He was, after all, part of a military organization. In Chile, the primary military threat to the colony was the Araucanians. For over 200 years by this point, the Spanish and the Araucanians had had repeated wars and raids. The Araucanians were never able to drive out the Spanish, and the Spanish never had the strength to destroy the natives. Ambrosio participated in many of the battles against the Araucanians. In battle after battle, Ambrosio would distinguish himself leading troops from the front. Ambrosio would steadily rise through the ranks and would be noted for development of innovative cavalry tactics fighting the natives. His fame would only grow when he received a head wound during a fight where the Araucanians were surprised by his innovative tactics and routed at Lautaro. Despite the near-constant fighting with the Araucanians, Ambrosio was not in favor of destroying the Araucanians. Although many in the Spanish colonial administration would press for a policy of extermination against the natives. As he rose through the ranks of administration, Ambrosio pressed for more trade with the Araucanians. He had a great deal of respect for their culture and was an avid devotee of their handwoven blankets and the ponchos that were so common to the area. Although he was a man of his time and believed in the “civilizing” mission of the Spanish, as colonial administrators went, Ambrosio was forward thinking in his relations with the local tribes. This is not to say that he was a pacifist. He would go on to order multiple reprisal expeditions against local tribes in response to raids. He had no qualms about extending Spanish imperial control further into tribal lands.

During one of Ambrosio’s many trips to southern Chile at this time, he would be a houseguest of a friend of his, Simon Riquelme, a landowner near the city of Los Angeles. In a story as old as time, the young teenage daughter of Riquelme, Isabel, was impressed by the powerful and dashing Ambrosio. Ambrosio, being a man of power and wealth, also had an eye for women. Despite being over 30 years his junior, Isabel would become pregnant from the liaison between the two, and in 1778, a boy named Bernardo Riquelme was born. According to Bernardo, later in life, Isabel only yielded to Ambrosio’s advances when he promised to seek permission from the royal court to marry her. Although Ambrosio would provide some financial support for this illegitimate son, especially when it came to education, Ambrosio would never deign to meet this young boy who would have the same brilliance and energy of his father. This will not be the last we hear of young Bernardo. 

Moving up

Ambrosio moved further up the ladder when he was promoted to Governor of the province of Concepción. Concepción province was the location of the capital of Chile and was a prestigious post for a man who started as a poor immigrant. While Governor of Concepción, Ambrosio would have contact with the French explorer the Comte de la Perouse. Although Ambrosio would have an adversarial relationship with the explorer, the research he conducted led the British to plan an expedition to Chile to conquer the region. Although this expedition would be redirected to Montevideo, the scare would give Ambrosio the impetus to recommend improvements to the defense of his province. Ambrosio’s noted ability, as well as his sound recommendations would lead the king, Carlos III to ennoble him as the 1st Barón de Ballinar in 1787 appoint him as the Captain-General of Chile in 1788. In 30 years, an Irish refugee had risen to the highest office in the Spanish colonial administration of Chile. 

Ambrosio wasted no time. He dusted off his old plan to create stations in the Andes to improve communications with Buenos Aires. After all these years, he had not forgotten. A postal service was created. Defenses were reinforced. Surveys were made to determine the mineral and agricultural wealth of Chile. He would make frequent inspections and tours to see for himself that there was always activity. New towns were founded. Imports were encouraged, despite the resistance of local manufacturers. The success that Ambrosio had in developing the region around the city of Osorno would lead to King Carlos IV making him Marquis de Osorno in 1796. There were military tasks that Ambrosio undertook where he could showcase his skills. He ordered the development of old fortifications and construction of new ones in Southern Chile. Military roads were constructed between Santiago, Valparaíso, and Concepción. Routes were opened in Araucanian and Mapuche territory. Perhaps the greatest reform Ambrosio undertook while Captain-General was to abolish the encomienda system. This system, which combined many of the worst aspects of manorialism and slavery, required the native populations of Chile to provide labor to landowners they were bound to. Under Ambrosio’s rule, Chile rose from being a colonial backwater to highly developed colonial jewel. It was at this time that the foundations of the economic and political growth of Chile in the years after independence were formed.

Viceroy of Peru

Due to the impressive accomplishments of Ambrosio in his governorship of Chile, in 1795 he was promoted to be the Viceroy of Peru. Lima, the seat of the viceroyalty, had been the home of Spanish administration in South America for over 250 years. Peru is where a large amount of the mineral wealth of the Americas was extracted for Spain. Only Mexico provided more to Spain than Peru. This wealth kept the corrupt and incompetent Spanish court afloat. Entrusting this responsibility to Ambrosio is a window into both the importance of the office and the opinion the court held of Ambrosio. 

Unfortunately, Ambrosio would not have quite the success in Peru as he had in Chile. By 1795, the French Revolutionary Wars had started, and Spain would play an active part, first as an enemy of France, then its ally. Spain needed all the money it could get its hands on to fight the British, especially the Royal Navy. The money for internal improvements and building projects would not be there for Ambrosio, unless it were for fortifications. The great plan he developed, to link Lima and the old Incan capital, Cuzco, by road would never come to fruition. The Spain of the cartoonishly incompetent and corrupt pair of Carlos IV and his prime minister, Manuel Godoy, was not the enlightened despotism of the reformer Carlos III.  What could have been the ultimate capstone to his career was a disappointing and frustrating denouement. In 1801, Ambrosio died. 

The life of Ambrosio O’Higgins was extraordinary for its time. He rose from a family of Irish tenant farmers to a twice ennobled colonial administrator in the Spanish Empire. Emigrant to Viceroy. Through sheer drive, energy, and competence, Ambrosio O’Higgins wrote one of the most unique chapters in the history of South America. However, this story does not end with his death. Toward the end of his life, Ambrosio declared in his will that his illegitimate son, Bernardo Riquelme, to be his heir. It would be this penniless young man who would take his father’s legacy, and his last name, to become Bernardo O’Higgins, the father of an independent Chile. 

What do you think of Ambrosio O’Higgins’ life? Let us know below.

Now, read part 2 about the early life of Ambrosio’s son, Bernardo O’Higgins, here.

References

Clissold, Stephen. Bernardo O’Higgins and the Independence of Chile. Frederick A. Praeger, Inc., Publishers, 1968.

Fanning, Tim. Paisanos: The Forgotten Irish Who Changed the Face of Latin America. Gill Books, 2016.

Kinsbruner, Jay. Bernardo O’Higgins. Twayne Publishers, Inc., 1968.