America’s 2021 Afghanistan Withdrawal – Lessons Not Learned?

Today, when most people think of Afghanistan, they recall the Biden administration’s calamitous withdrawal in the summer of 2021 and the end of what many have termed a ‘forever war.’ Tragically, the Taliban’s victory reversed two decades of effort to establish liberal institutions and women’s rights in the war-ravaged country. Many commentators have compared America’s retreat from Afghanistan to the country’s hasty evacuation of Vietnam in 1975. Indeed, there are similarities in the chaotic nature of the two withdrawals and the resulting tragic effects for the people of Afghanistan and Vietnam, respectively.

Brian Morra looks at the lessons the Biden Administration could have taken from earlier Soviet and American wars in Afghanistan.

Soviet troops atop a tank in Kabul in 1986.

Regarding Afghanistan, Americans are less likely to remember the Soviet Union’s war there and Moscow’s own rather ignominious pull out. This is unfortunate because there are lessons to be learned from the USSR’s ill-fated foray into Afghanistan that US policymakers ought to have heeded during our own twenty-year war. My latest historical novel, The Righteous Arrows (Amazon US | Amazon UK), published by Koehler Books, devotes a good deal of ink to the missteps made by Washington and Moscow in that long-ago war. My intention with The Righteous Arrows is to entertain while providing the reader with a sense of what should have been learned from the Soviets’ failed adventure in Afghanistan.

What was Moscow’s war in Afghanistan all about?

Like many wars, it began with what seemed to be good intentions. The Kremlin leaders who made the decision to go to war thought that it would not really be a war at all but a ‘police action’ or a ‘special military operation’ if you like. The Kremlin leadership expected their engagement in Afghanistan to be sharp and quick. Instead, it turned into a decade-long, bloody slog that contributed to the later implosion of the USSR itself. Talk about unintended consequences!

How did the Soviet foray into Afghanistan start?

It began over the Christmas season in 1979 when the Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev was convinced to come to the aid of a weak, pro-Russian socialist regime in Kabul. The initial operation was led by the KGB with support from the GRU (Soviet Military Intelligence) and Army Airborne units. After initial success, the Kremlin quickly became embroiled in a war with tribal militias who did not like either the socialist puppet regime that Moscow was propping up or the Soviet occupation.

What was supposed to be a quick operation became a ferocious guerrilla war that lasted most of the 1980s and killed some 16,000 Soviet troops. The war sapped the strength of the Soviet armed forces and exposed to anyone who was paying attention just how weak the USSR had become. By 1986, the reformist Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev had decided to get out of the bloody quagmire in Afghanistan. He found it was not that easy to leave and the last Russian forces did not depart Afghanistan until February 1989.

United States’ involvement

Beginning with the Jimmy Carter administration, the United States provided arms to the Afghan Islamic rebels fighting the Soviets. Military support from the US grew exponentially under President Ronald Reagan and by 1986 Washington was arming the Mujaheddin with advanced weapons, including the Stinger surface-to-air missiles that decimated Soviet airpower. America’s weapons turned the tide against the Soviet occupiers, but Washington also rolled the dice by arming Islamic rebels that it could not control.

Not only did the Afghan Islamic fighters become radicalized, but they were also joined by idealistic jihadis from all over the world. The Soviets’ ten-year occupation of Afghanistan became a magnet for recruiting jihadis, as did NATO’s two-decades long occupation some years later. The founder of al Qaeda, Usama bin Laden, brought together and funded Arab fighters in Afghanistan, ostensibly to fight the Russians, but mainly to build his own power base. Although Washington never armed bin Laden’s fighters, he used his presence in Afghanistan during the Soviet war and occupation as a propaganda bonanza. He trumpeted the military prowess of al Qaeda, which was largely a myth of bin Laden’s own creation, and claimed that he brought down the Soviet bear. His propaganda machine claimed that if al Qaeda could defeat one superpower (the USSR), then it also could beat the other one (the USA).

During the 1980s, Washington officials downplayed the danger of arming radical Islamic fighters. It was far more important for the White House to bring down the Soviet Union than to worry about a handful of Mujaheddin. One must admit that the Americans’ proxy war against the USSR in Afghanistan was the most successful one it conducted during the entire Cold War. On the other hand, Washington opened a virtual Pandora’s box of militarized jihadism and has been dealing with the consequences ever since.

The aftermath

The Soviet occupation encouraged most of Afghanistan’s middle class to flee the country, leaving an increasingly radicalized and militarized society in its wake. This was the Afghanistan the United States invaded in the fall of 2001, shortly after bin Laden’s 9/11 attacks on Wall Street and the Pentagon. Policymakers in Washington failed to grasp just how radically Afghan society had changed because of the Soviet occupation.

There was discussion in Washington’s national security circles in the immediate aftermath of 9/11, warning of the dangers of fighting in Afghanistan. Bromides were offered, calling the country the ‘graveyard of empires’, but none of it had much impact on policy. Most officials in the George W. Bush administration did not understand how radicalized Afghan society had become and how severe the costs of fighting a counter-insurgency operation in Afghanistan might turn out to be.

The CIA-led operation to defeat the Soviets in Afghanistan in the 1980s with small numbers of Americans was the game plan Washington also used in the fall of 2001 to defeat al Qaeda and bring down the ruling Taliban regime. The playbook worked brilliantly in both cases. Unfortunately, for the United States and our NATO allies, the initial defeat of the Taliban did not make for a lasting victory or an enduring peace.

For twenty years, the United States fought two different wars in Afghanistan. One was a counter-terror war, the fight to defeat al Qaeda and its affiliates and to prevent them from reconstituting. The other war was a counterinsurgency against the Taliban and their allies. The reason the United States and NATO went into Afghanistan was to prosecute the first war – the anti-terror war. We fell into a counterinsurgency conflict as the Taliban reconstituted with help from Pakistan and others. This was a classic case of ‘mission creep’ and it required large combat forces to be deployed, in contrast to the light footprint of the counter-terror operation. The first war – the counter-terror war – prevented another 9/11 style major attack on the United States, while the second one required the US and NATO to deploy massive force and – ultimately – depended on the soundness of the Afghan government we supported.

The sad fact is that the successful campaign against the Taliban and the routing of al Qaeda in 2001 and 2002 led to an unfocused twenty-year war that ended with the Taliban back in charge and a humiliated United States leaving hundreds of thousands of vulnerable Afghan allies behind. In sworn Congressional testimony, General Milley, who in 2021 was Chairman of the Joint Chiefs, and General Mackenzie, who was Commander of Central Command, have stated that they forcefully advised President Biden to leave a small footprint of US forces and contractors in Afghanistan to prosecute the counter-terror war. Our NATO allies were willing to stay and in fact increased their forces in Afghanistan shortly after Biden was inaugurated. Not only did President Biden not heed his military advisors, but he also later denied that they ever counseled him to keep a small force in Afghanistan. Some have described Biden’s decision to pull out of Afghanistan as ‘pulling defeat from the jaws of victory’.

President Biden further asserted that, by withdrawing, he was merely honoring the agreement President Trump had made earlier with the Taliban. This claim does not stand up to objective scrutiny because the Taliban repeatedly violated the terms of the Trump agreement, which gave the White House ample opportunity to declare it null and void.

What are the lessons the United States should have learned from the Soviet and American wars in Afghanistan?

1. Keep your war aims limited and crystal clear.

2. Fight mission creep and do not allow it to warp the original war aims or plans for a light footprint of forces.

3. Beware of the law of unintended consequences. Consider the downside risks of arming the enemy of one’s enemy.

4. Be willing to invest for the long-term or do not get involved. The United States still has forces in Germany, Italy, and Japan nearly eighty years after the end of World War II. Some victories are worth protecting.

5. Ensure that the Washington tendency toward ‘group think’ does not hijack critical thinking. Senior policymakers must think and act strategically, so that ‘hope’ does not become the plan.

Footnote on Ukraine

I will close with a footnote about the Russian war in Ukraine. The Soviet war in Afghanistan has dire similarities with Russia’s ‘special military operation’ underway today in Ukraine. In Afghanistan, Soviet forces killed indiscriminately and almost certainly committed numerous war crimes. The war also militarized Afghan society – a condition that persists to this day, and one that had a profound impact on America’s war in Afghanistan. In Ukraine, Russia’s invasion has been characterized by war crimes, mass emigration, and the militarization of Ukrainian society.

Much as in Iraq and Afghanistan, senior US policy in Ukraine is failing to identify clear strategic outcomes. It is the role of our most senior policy officials to focus on strategic outcomes and an exit strategy (if one is warranted) beforecommitting American forces or treasure to foreign wars. Too often, platitudes have masqueraded as strategy. When one thinks of great wartime presidents like Lincoln and Franklin Roosevelt, the trait they shared was a singular focus on strategic outcomes and on how to shape the post-war environment. The Soviets failed to do so in their war in Afghanistan. The US also fell short in Afghanistan. Unfortunately, the banalities that pass for foreign policy strategy we hear in Washington today indicate that we have not learned from the past.

Brian J. Morra is the author of two historical novels: “The Able Archers” (Amazon US | Amazon UK) and the recently-published “The Righteous Arrows” (Amazon US | Amazon UK).

More about Brian:

Brian a former U.S. intelligence officer and a retired senior aerospace executive. He helped lead the American intelligence team in Japan that uncovered the true story behind the Soviet Union's shootdown of Korean Airlines flight 007 in September 1983. He also served on the Air Staff at the Pentagon while on active duty. As an aerospace executive he worked on many important national security programs. Morra earned a BA from William and Mary, an MPA from the University of Oklahoma, an MA in National Security Studies from Georgetown University, and completed the Advanced Management Program at Harvard Business School. He has provided commentary for CBS, Netflix and the BBC. Learn more at: www.brianjmorra.com

Unveiling the Cosmos: A Journey through the History of Astrophysics & Astronomy

Astrophysics, the study of the universe beyond Earth's atmosphere, is a clear indication that humanity has an insatiable curiosity and relentless pursuit of knowledge. From the earliest civilizations to the modern era, our understanding of the cosmos has evolved exponentially, propelled by the brilliance of countless minds across centuries.

Here, Terry Bailey takes us on a brief yet captivating journey through history, tracing the origins and development of astrophysics and astronomy from its humble beginnings to the awe-inspiring advancements of the present day.

A depiction of Renaissance astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus.

Our journey commences in ancient times, where the seeds of astrophysics were sown amidst the fertile intellectual landscapes of early civilizations such as ancient Mesopotamia, Egypt, China and Greece to name a few. Among the pioneers of this era were Democritus of Thrace born in the 5th Century BCE, whose revolutionary atomic theory posited that all matter consisted of indivisible particles called atoms. Although his ideas primarily pertained to terrestrial phenomena, it laid a foundational framework for understanding the fundamental building blocks of the universe.

Another luminary of antiquity was Aristarchus of Samos, whose heliocentric model challenged the prevailing geocentric, (Earth centric), worldview. In the 3rd century BCE, Aristarchus proposed that the Earth and other planets orbited the Sun—a concept far ahead of its time. Despite facing resistance from contemporaries such as Aristotle, Aristarchus's visionary insight foreshadowed the Copernican revolution millennia later. Additionally, he calculated and estimated the distance to the Moon and the Sun and size of the Sun. It was after realizing the Sun was far larger than Earth he concluded that the Earth and other planets orbited the Sun.

Eratosthenes of Cyrene emerges as yet another luminary of antiquity, renowned for his groundbreaking contributions to geometry, astronomy and mathematics. In the 3rd century BCE, Eratosthenes accurately calculated the circumference of the Earth using simple trigonometric principles, and calculated the Earth's axial tilt. In addition, Eratosthenes also worked on calculating the distance to the Moon and Sun as well as the diameter of the Sun adding to the works of Aristarchus of Samos - showcasing the ancient world's nascent grasp of celestial mechanics.

Renaissance

As the world transitioned into the Renaissance period, the torch of astrophysical inquiry continued to burn brightly in the hands of visionaries such as Nicolaus Copernicus. Building upon the heliocentric model proposed by Aristarchus, Copernicus's seminal work "De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium", (On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres),  revolutionized our understanding of the solar system. Thereby, placing the Sun at the center of the cosmos, Copernicus catalyzed a paradigm shift that would forever alter humanity's perception of its place in the universe.

The Enlightenment era ushered in a golden age of scientific discovery, with luminaries such as Johannes Kepler and Galileo Galilei making indelible contributions to astrophysics / astronomy. Kepler's laws of planetary motion provided a mathematical framework for understanding the dynamics of celestial bodies, while Galileo's telescopic observations offered compelling evidence in support of the heliocentric model.

20th century

The dawn of the 20th century witnessed the birth of modern astrophysics / astronomy marked by transformative developments in theoretical physics and observational techniques. Albert Einstein's theory of general relativity completely changed our understanding of gravity, by adding to Isaac Newton findings, Einstein’s work offered profound insight into the curvature of space-time and the behavior of massive objects in the cosmos. Meanwhile, advancements in spectroscopy and telescopic technology facilitated unprecedented discoveries, allowing astronomers to peer deeper into the universe than ever before.

The latter half of the 20th century witnessed a surge in astrophysical / astronomical research, fueled by technological innovations such as space-based observatories and supercomputers. The advent of radio, X-ray and Gamma astronomy opened new vistas of exploration, enabling scientists to study cosmic phenomena beyond the visible spectrum. Concurrently, the emergence of particle astrophysics shed light on the enigmatic nature of dark matter and dark energy—two elusive entities that comprise the majority of the universe's mass-energy content.

In recent decades, the field of astrophysics has witnessed a convergence of disciplines, as researchers unravel the mysteries of black holes, gravitational waves, and the cosmic microwave background, (CMBR). Groundbreaking discoveries such as the detection of gravitational waves by the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO) have provided empirical validation for Einstein's predictions, while opening new avenues for studying the dynamics of space-time.

As we stand on the precipice of a new era of exploration, the future of astrophysics / astronomy appears more promising and tantalizing than ever before. From the quest to uncover the origins of cosmic inflation to the search for extraterrestrial life, humanity's insatiable curiosity continues to drive scientific inquiry to unprecedented heights. As we gaze upon the vast expanse of the cosmos, we are reminded of our shared quest to unravel the mysteries of existence and unlock the secrets of the universe.

In perspective

In retracing the illustrious history of astrophysics / astronomy, we are reminded of humanity's enduring quest for knowledge and understanding. From the ancient musings of Democritus and Aristarchus to the groundbreaking discoveries of modern-day physicists, the journey of astrophysics serves as proof to the boundless potential of the human intellect. Gazing upon celestial weave of the cosmos, humans are reminded of our humble place within the vast expanse of space and time—a reminder of the profound interconnectedness that binds us to the universe itself.

I should add that amateur astronomers are now playing an increasingly active role in cosmic research, a number of projects are currently running that actively engage amateur astronomers to aid in the searching of the cosmos.

The vast expanse of the cosmos means it is impossible to observe the whole universe all the time, therefore, by engaging experienced home based astronomers across the globe it allows more of the cosmos to be observed, thus providing researchers with extra eyes to report possible finds.

Amateur astronomy is currently one of the fastest growing pastimes, as a professional astrophysicist I actively encourage everyone to look skyward and explore the cosmos either for pure pleasure and wonder or with the aim of possible becoming engaged in a live project.

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Special notes:

Size of the observable universe

The observable universe is more than 46 billion light-years in any direction from Earth, therefore, the observable universe is 93 billion light-years in diameter. Given the constant expansion of the universe, the observable universe expands another light-year every Earth year. However, it is important to note this is only the observable universe and Earth is simply part of the universe and not at the center of the universe.

One light year is equivalent to 9.46 trillion kilometers.

Point of interest:

Recent ground breaking research has identified evidence that suggests black holes are the source of dark energy, however, it must be remembered that this research is in the early stages and required more work.

Although, other researchers have proposed sources for dark energy, what makes this research unique is this is the first observational research where nothing was added to explain the source of dark energy in the Universe. This research simply uses existing proven physics, in other words black holes in Einstein's theory of gravity are the dark energy.

As further research is carried out and empirical testing hopefully provides the same answers then the mystery of the source for dark energy with be known at last, resolving a physics conundrum.

Theory of general relativity

A simple summing up of the core principles of general relativity.

John Wheeler, theoretical physicist, summed up the core of Albert Einstein’s theory of general relativity. “Matter tells space-time how to curve, and curved space-time tells matter how to move”.

Historic Preservation Movement and Environmental Conservation

The historic preservation movement has shifted its focus multiple times and broadened its purposes throughout its existence. Here, Roy Williams returns and considers how it has evolved over time – and how it can be focused today.

The American Heritage Documentation Programs team measures the Kentucky School for the Blind. In Louisville, Kentucky, 1934.

In the beginning the historic preservation movement’s emphasis was preserving heritage through the built environment. The preservation of the built environment provided a framework and grounding point for understanding the culture and heritage of a nation. This provided understanding of the core valued concepts, institutions, and values which make up a nation. In addition to the preservation of the built environment, the National Park Service initially was formed to protect landscapes from the destructive industrial ravages of the 19th century. Ian Tyrell provides the argument that the rise of support for the National Park Service came as a direct result of a perceived global threat to the environment and the immediate need for conservation.[1] In this, the conservation of the environment and historic preservation have similar causes and roots. The two major reasons for preservation stand in pragmatic conservation for the utility of future use and preservation for the sake of preserving the existence of land and sites regardless of their utility to humans.

1970s

The historic preservation movement largely stood in its goals of preserving heritage and identity until the 1970s when the conservation of the environment began to become an important aspect of historic preservation. Questions of how much environmental destruction was wrought from the demolition of buildings and effects of new construction provided another angle to the importance of historic preservation. The embodied energy present in the construction of an old building provided the argument that older buildings should be preserved both out of cultural continuity regarding historic preservation as well as for the pragmatic aspect that the energy of construction would be wasted in the demolition of older buildings. The embodied energy of new construction would also add to the greater energy costs on top of the demolition of the older building. While this conclusion seems straight forward initially, there are opponents to the concept. Helena Meryman adheres to the concept of embodied energy in buildings but delves deeper into the world of materials associated with the preservation of the built environment with an emphasis upon the maintenance and conservation of the environment. In this regard, Meryman argues that while many materials should be recycled and previous methods of craftsmanship should be utilized in maintaining historic reconstructions, the importance of evaluating the potential of certain resources and their environmental impacts remains tantamount. Specifically, Meryman provides the counter argument against the proponents of wood as a sustainable material, that the lumber industry does contribute to deforestation and that, “The rates of timber consumption are exceeding the rate of renewal of natural forests.”[2] Instead, Meryman argues for the attempted extension of the life of current wood materials associated with historic structures and only using newly harvested wood for repairs when absolutely necessary. The National Park Service utilizes a concept known as replacement in kind which allows for the use of new materials at times allowing flexibility in the maintenance and rehabilitation of historic structures, the problem however with replacement in kind stands in the continued dependence on newly harvested lumber. The National Park Service provides the guidelines for when replacement in kind may be utilized as follows,

“The Secretary of the Interior's Standards for Rehabilitation generally require that deteriorated distinctive architectural features of a historic property be repaired rather than replaced. Standard 6 of the Standards for Rehabilitation further states that when replacement of a distinctive feature is necessary, the new feature must “match the old in composition, design, color, texture, and other visual properties, and, where possible, materials” (emphasis added). While the use of matching materials to replace historic ones is always preferred under the Standards for Rehabilitation, the Standards also purposely recognize that flexibility may sometimes be needed when it comes to new and replacement materials as part of a historic rehabilitation project. Substitute materials that closely match the visual and physical properties of historic materials can be successfully used on many rehabilitation projects in ways that are consistent with the Standards.”[3]

Embodied energy

Embodied energy is largely an accepted philosophical aspect of the debate between preservation, demolition, and new construction, the costs involved in the creation of materials such as lumber, brick, steel all amount to a substantial amount monetarily and in carbon output. The energy expended in moving materials from one location to another for the actual construction also amounts to a substantial amount especially in carbon output regarding transportation through the combustion of gasoline and diesel engines. Finally, the human labor utilized to create residential and commercial buildings remains a factor in the overall energy costs embedded in a building. The question from this embodied energy in buildings then arises in whether an older building is more environmentally friendly when retrofitted and updated than the construction of a new building? While at first glance, this seems straightforward the answer is not so simple and has engendered a small but passionate debate regarding the future regarding the nexus of preservation, environmental conservation, demolition, and construction.

Some scholars argue that the previous costs or embodied energies of an older building should not factor into current decision making regarding the demolition or preservation of a building. This current of thought argues that the energy that went into the construction of a building 50 to 100 years ago is water under the bridge and has no factor in this decision. Tristan Roberts drives this point home, arguing that resources expended in the past are not relative to the present, stating that, “when it comes to the energy expended in the 19th century to build that structure, that’s not a good reason for saving a building from demolition — it’s water under the bridge. Energy spent 2, 20, or 200 years ago to build a building simply isn’t a resource to us today.”[4]  Rather, they argue that the only two factors that should be considered are the costs of demolition and the potential benefits of more energy efficient construction. If the costs of demolition and its environmental impact cannot be offset quickly by more energy efficient new construction, then it is best to wait and leave the current building present for use. If the costs of demolition can be offset quickly by the more energy efficient new construction, then the demolition should proceed. The problem with this argument is that it stands in a philosophical binary regarding environmental destruction and energy efficiency rather than a larger more nuanced analysis. What does it matter which option is technically more efficient if both methods continue to add carbon-based pollution to the atmosphere and destroy the environment? Even with the recycling of materials, the costs of demolition and new construction both still pollute the environment and add to overall carbon emissions. Is the goal of this binary decision making to take the best of two bad options or is it to solve the problem and work towards an environmentally sustainable future? The National Trust for Historic Preservation argues that,

“A new, high-performance building needs between 10-80 years, depending on the building type and where it is built, to offset the environmental impact of its construction. In comparing new and retrofitted buildings of similar size, function, and performance, energy savings in retrofitted buildings ranged from 4-46 percent higher than new construction. The benefits of retrofitting and reusing existing buildings are even more pronounced in regions powered by coal and that experience wider climate variations.”[5]

Green buildings

The United States Environmental Protection Agency details that, “600 million tons of C&D debris were generated in the United States in 2018, which is more than twice the amount of generated municipal solid waste. Demolition represents more than 90 percent of total C&D debris generation, while construction represents less than 10 percent. Just over 455 million tons of C&D debris were directed to next use and just under 145 million tons were sent to landfills. Aggregate was the main next use for the materials in the C&D debris.”[6] The context for this amount of waste provides a framework in understanding how Construction and Debris waste amounts for twice the amount of debris created from municipal solid waste. While new construction may produce less construction and debris-based waste, the reality that older buildings are demolished to make room for the construction of new buildings makes this problem inherently interconnected.

The sentiment of the environmental turn regarding historic preservation can be summarized best, in the words of Carl Elefante, former president of the American Institute of Architects, who said, “The greenest building is the one that already exists”[7] Simply put, the importance of preserving buildings for the purpose of environmental conservation serves both goals of the environmental movement as well as the historic preservation movement. Architect Steward Brand took this concept and developed it extensively in presenting how architects should not be confined to the realm of mastering space but to becoming artists of time.[8] Brand argues that buildings should be constantly updated and refined and utilized by humans to ensure their potential and utility. In this regard, Brand also believes that buildings should be constantly updated by their occupants rather than destroyed for the purposes of new construction. Following Brand’s deeper points, he argues that all buildings are made up of six shearing layers Site, Structure, Skin, Services, Space Plan & Stuff. The organization Restore Oregon provides supplementary evidence to this premise regarding environmental impact. Restore Oregon utilizes the Eco-Northwest study which detailed that,

“Renovating a 1,500 SF older home reduces embedded CO2 emissions by 126 metric tons, versus tearing down the same structure and replacing it with a new 3,000 SF residential building. Such savings may be better understood this way: a savings of 126 metric tons of embedded CO2 is roughly equivalent to the prevention of 44,048 gallons of gasoline emissions being released into the atmosphere. In the case of a 10,000 SF commercial building, which would typically utilize more energy-intensive materials and construction techniques than residential construction, the CO2 emissions savings would be 1,383 metric tons, or the equivalent of 484,127 gallons of gasoline burned.”

Substantially, the ECONorthwest study also presented the reality that preserved buildings have a far greater positive impact on CO2 Emissions than the removal of present combustion engines when accounting for the average annual 474 gallons of gasoline used by American vehicles, arguing that, “renovating an older home, rather than demolishing and replacing it, equates to removing 93 cars from the road for an entire year, while a single commercial renovation equates to removing 1,028 cars from the road for the same period of time.” This stands as significant statistical analysis when considering the broader trends of historic preservation and environmental conservation as united fields.

Reuse and deconstruction movement

A particular bright spot regarding sustainability and the middle ground between preservation and demolition is the recent advancements in the reuse and deconstruction movement. Rather than the current largescale trend of demolition, deconstruction aims to dismantle older buildings for the purpose of reuse and recycling. Deconstruction ordinances such as those in Portland Oregon dictate that older residential buildings must be deconstructed, and their materials reutilized. This revolutionary concept could potentially pave the way for a more circular economy in which waste is recycled and reused rather than discarded for new construction. However, the movement remains in its early stages, “There isn’t a salvage economy in the U.S. for commercial buildings,”[9] said Jason F. McLennan, the chief executive of McLennan Design and the creator of the Living Building Challenge, with most of the projects remaining residential in nature. Reuse at this stage is not necessarily more profitable due to the labor included in deconstruction and the process of storing materials. The most advantageous aspect of reuse remains in the preservation of historic materials as well as the preservation of embodied energy remaining in the materials.

Re: Purpose Savannah led 501(c)3 nonprofit advocates for sustainability through deconstruction, salvage, and reuse of historic buildings.[10] This effort towards deconstruction and recycling provides a viable alternative to the waste and pollution generated from conventional demolition. Upon research and documentation in preserving the history of a structure, Re:Purpose Savannah deconstructs the materials storing them and selling the salvaged material at their own lumberyard in Savannah. Re:Purpose Savannah’s documentation of historic deconstructed buildings includes detailed analysis of the building’s history, history of owners, photos, mapping, and its larger connections to American history all digitized on their website for the purpose of preservation all while the materials are recycled. Another example of reuse of buildings in a potentially viable manner is the development of deconstruction and recycling companies such as The Re Store, Re-Use Consulting, and Unbuilders throughout the country, reselling recycled building materials to builders. These companies originated with the beginning of deconstruction ordinances in the 1990s. Localities which have enacted deconstruction ordinances include Portland Oregon, King County Washington, and Vancouver British Columbia.[11]

The Portland Oregon Deconstruction ordinance of October 31, 2016, dictates that all structures built from 1940 earlier, (Amended from 1916) are subject to the ordinance. This means that all buildings falling within the ordinance must be deconstructed rather than mechanically demolished for the purpose of recycling valuable materials rather than being crushed and landfilled.[12] The city of Portland further regulates this process by determining that the building must be deconstructed by a certified deconstruction contractor rather than any unlicensed and unregulated construction firm or individual. The ordinance does allow for exemptions if the building is deemed unsafe for human life but generally the most valuable reusable material exists in the framing of the house allowing for very little room for exemptions.

Economic benefits

While the marketplace for deconstruction is still in its developing stage, there are certainly economic benefits to its further implementation. The Urban Sustainability Directors Network details the benefits of recycling C&D debris as well as the reusing of material on the project site. Specifically, USDN displays how deconstruction ordinances can significantly reduce waste and the amount of material disposed away in landfills. According to USDN, the Foster Hill California ordinance dictates that 50% of all C&D tonnage to be diverted from landfills to reuse, similarly, Portland’s deconstruction ordinance diverts an estimated 8 million pounds in material to reuse annually.[13] As deconstruction ordinances expand, the amount of materials reused rather than discarded will increase significantly improving overall sustainability, the largest problem stands in implementing ordinances and expanding the market from residential buildings to commercial deconstruction.

The principles of Historic Preservation show that abandonment can be one of the worst things for a building. When a building sits vacant, it becomes vulnerable to the degradation of time, climate-based factors, and wildlife which will utilize the building regardless of humans but may destroy certain aspects of it. The importance of keeping buildings in use stands as a significant goal both between those who are more directed towards the environmental preservation of the built environment as well as those based in concerns of historic preservation. The preservation of buildings in cities throughout the country for the purpose of environmental conservation as the utmost priority can serve multiple goals in maintaining a form of historic preservation, practicing environmental conservation, and in preventing cities from losing their historical character and the effects of the ever-present cultural danger of urban environments hollowing out.

One particular piece of artwork which describes the environmental turn within the historic preservation movement and the larger consideration of embodied energy stands in the gas can building artwork entitled Preservation: Reusing Americas Energy provided by the National Trust for Historic Preservation for Preservation week in 1980.[14] This artwork shows a commercial style building as a gas can to describe the embodied energy present in the building which should be preserved rather than destroyed for the purpose of new construction. In this regard, the building is depicted as having 640,000 gallons of gasoline embodied within the building and should not be preserved to continue utilizing that energy rather than destroyed. The artwork is certainly representative of the times when considering the stagflation and high gas prices of the late 1970s going forward in the 1980s. The importance of preservation for the purpose of utility is on full display as one of the most consequential aspects presented. While the representation of embodied energy as gasoline may feel dated as we continue to transition from fossil fuel-based energy to more sustainable solutions, the importance of conservation and the embodied energy stored in buildings remains an ever-present issue.

Paradigm change

Changing the Paradigm from Demolition to Reuse—Building Reuse Ordinances, by Tom Mayes provides another argument directly implicating the current tactics of urban planning and city management which professes to be utilizing environmentally friendly practices yet demolishes buildings without a second thought. Mayes argues that “few cities actively promote the reuse of existing buildings as a green strategy.”[15] With most being discarded and their materials ending up in a landfill with the new materials gained through extractive methods and transported using fossil fuels. This process of demolition and construction continues the process of environmental destruction all while cities pretend to be solving the issue with new ultra-modern style sleek energy efficient construction. This process does not help the issue of environmental conservation in any meaningful way but continues the process of disposability which continues to destroy the environment. Nigel Whiteley describes this process of disposability and hyper consumerism which became established in the 1950s and the 1960s, displaying how products became designed with an explicit understanding that they would soon become obsolete for other products to take their place in demand.[16] This process of disposability moved from fashion to automobiles, to construction. Logically the development of a throw away disposable culture eventually leads to the disposal of buildings for the consumption of newer and more developed buildings with no concern for the energy expended in their previous historic construction. This also has a significant impact of historic preservation as the continuity of urban environments is broken for newer construction rather than the continuance of previous historic structures which grounded the identity of the area.

The present issues faced by both the historic preservation and environmentalist movements can be best summarized by the words of John Muir, “People need Beauty as well as Bread” The importance of maintaining the pragmatism of a working economy and environment cannot be overlooked. The world of human interaction and commerce cannot stop to ensure that the environment can recover, however, new and innovative practices can be put into place which will ensure that the environment can be conserved for future use. Much like the preservation of the human identity through the environment which has shaped human history, the preservation of the built environment is inexplicably unified with this purpose. Whether in the reduction of CO2 emissions by the preservation and retrofitting of older buildings or in the protection of vast swathes of landscapes to protect both the environmental and cultural identity, both movements are linked together. The importance of adaptation and innovation in accomplishing these goals remains significant in addressing the current challenges and problems both fields face.[17]

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Bibliography

Primary Sources

Lindlaw, Scott. “Preservations Urge Weighing Environmental Impact of Teardowns.” New Bedford Standard-Times, April 9, 2008. https://www.southcoasttoday.com/story/lifestyle/2008/04/09/preservations-urge-weighing-environmental-impact/52453454007/.

Secondary Sources

Journal Articles

Adam, Robert. “‘The Greenest Building Is the One That Already Exists.’” The Architects’ Journal, August 13, 2021. https://www.architectsjournal.co.uk/news/opinion/the-greenest-building-is-the-one-that-already-exists#:~:text=Carl%20Elefante%2C%20former%20president%20of,the%20one%20that%20already%20exists’.

“Deconstruction Requirements.” Portland.gov. October 31, 2016. https://www.portland.gov/bps/climate-action/decon/deconstruction-requirements.

“Encouraging and Mandating Building Deconstruction.” Urban Sustainability Directors Network. https://sustainableconsumption.usdn.org/initiatives-list/encouraging-and-mandating-building-deconstruction.

MAYES, TOM. “Changing the Paradigm from Demolition to Reuse—Building Reuse Ordinances.” In Bending the Future: Fifty Ideas for the Next Fifty Years of Historic Preservation in the United States, edited by Max Page and Marla R. Miller, 162–65. University of Massachusetts Press, 2016. http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1hd19hg.31.

McMahon, Edward T., and A. Elizabeth Watson. “In My Opinion: In Search of Collaboration: Historic Preservation and the Environmental Movement.” History News 48, no. 6 (1993): 26–27. http://www.jstor.org/stable/42655670.

Meryman, Helena. “Structural Materials in Historic Restoration: Environmental Issues and Greener Strategies.” APT Bulletin: The Journal of Preservation Technology 36, no. 4 (2005): 31–38. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40003161.

National Park Service. “Evaluating Substitute Materials in Historic Buildings.” Last Modified October 6, 2023. https://www.nps.gov/subjects/taxincentives/evaluating-substitute-materials.htm.

  “Our Mission.” Re:Purpose Savannah. 2023. https://www.repurposesavannah.org/mission.

Preservation Green Lab, “The Greenest Building: Quantifying the Environmental Value of Building Reuse,” National Trust for Historic Preservation, 2011.

Prevost, Lisa. “Sustainability Advocates Ask: Why Demolish When You Can Deconstruct? New York Times.September 1, 2021. https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/01/business/waste-salvage-deconstruction-sustainability.html.

Roberts, Tristan. “Does Saving Historic Buildings Save Energy.” Green Building Advisor, May 2, 2011. https://www.greenbuildingadvisor.com/article/does-saving-historic-buildings-save-energy.

“Successes of a Sister City: Deconstruction around the World.” Re-Store.org. July 25, 2019. https://re-store.org/successes-of-a-sister-city-deconstruction-around-the-world/.

“Sustainable Management of Construction and Demolition Materials.” United States Environmental Protection Agency. Accessed November 7, 2023. https://www.epa.gov/smm/sustainable-management-construction-and-demolition-materials#:~:text=Demolition%20represents%20more%20than%2090,materials%20in%20the%20C%26D%20debris.

Tyrrell, Ian. “America’s National Parks: The Transnational Creation of National Space in the Progressive Era.” Journal of American Studies 46, no. 1 (2012): 1–21. http://www.jstor.org/stable/41427306.

Whiteley, Nigel. “Toward a Throw-Away Culture. Consumerism, ‘Style Obsolescence’ and Cultural Theory in the 1950s and 1960s.” Oxford Art Journal 10. no. 2 (1987): 3–27. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1360444.

Books

Miller, Marla R., and Max Page. Bending the Future: Fifty Ideas for the Next Fifty Years of Historic Preservation in the United States. UPCC Book Collections on Project MUSE. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2016. https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=ip,shib&db=nlebk&AN=1425207&site=eds-live&scope=site.

Brand, Stewart. How Buildings Learn: What Happens After They're Built. United States: Penguin Publishing Group, 1995.

[1] Ian Tyrell, “America’s National Parks: The Transnational Creation of National Space in the Progressive Era,” Journal of American Studies 46, no. 1 (2012): 1–21. http://www.jstor.org/stable/41427306.

[2] Helena Meryman, “Structural Materials in Historic Restoration: Environmental Issues and Greener Strategies,” The Journal of Preservation Technology 36, no. 4 (2005): 31–38. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40003161.

[3]“Evaluating Substitute Materials in Historic Buildings,” National Park Service, Last Modified October 6, 2023, https://www.nps.gov/subjects/taxincentives/evaluating-substitute-materials.htm.

[4] Tristan Roberts, “Does Saving Historic Buildings Save Energy,” Green Building Advisor, May 2, 2011, https://www.greenbuildingadvisor.com/article/does-saving-historic-buildings-save-energy.

[5] Preservation Green Lab, “The Greenest Building: Quantifying the Environmental Value of Building Reuse,” National Trust for Historic Preservation, 2011.

[6]“Sustainable Management of Construction and Demolition Materials,” United States Environmental Protection Agency, Accessed November 7, 2023, https://www.epa.gov/smm/sustainable-management-construction-and-demolition-materials#:~:text=Demolition%20represents%20more%20than%2090,materials%20in%20the%20C%26D%20debris.

[7]Robert Adam, “‘The Greenest Building Is the One That Already Exists,’” The Architects’ Journal, August 13, 2021, https://www.architectsjournal.co.uk/news/opinion/the-greenest-building-is-the-one-that-already-exists#:~:text=Carl%20Elefante%2C%20former%20president%20of,the%20one%20that%20already%20exists’.

[8] Stewart Brand, How Buildings Learn: What Happens After They're Built, United States: Penguin Publishing Group, 1995.

[9]Lisa Prevost, Sustainability Advocates Ask: Why Demolish When You Can Deconstruct?” New York Times, September 1, 2021, https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/01/business/waste-salvage-deconstruction-sustainability.html.

[10] “Our Mission,” Re:Purpose Savannah, 2023, https://www.repurposesavannah.org/mission.

[11] “Successes of a Sister City: Deconstruction around the World,” Re-Store.org, July 25, 2019, https://re-store.org/successes-of-a-sister-city-deconstruction-around-the-world/.

[12] “Deconstruction Requirements,” Portland.gov, October 31, 2016, https://www.portland.gov/bps/climate-action/decon/deconstruction-requirements.

[13] “Encouraging and Mandating Building Deconstruction,” Urban Sustainability Directors Network, https://sustainableconsumption.usdn.org/initiatives-list/encouraging-and-mandating-building-deconstruction.

[14] Scott Lindlaw, “Preservations Urge Weighing Environmental Impact of Teardowns,” New Bedford Standard-Times, April 9, 2008, https://www.southcoasttoday.com/story/lifestyle/2008/04/09/preservations-urge-weighing-environmental-impact/52453454007/.

[15] Tom Mayes, “Changing the Paradigm from Demolition to Reuse—Building Reuse Ordinances,” In Bending the Future: Fifty Ideas for the Next Fifty Years of Historic Preservation in the United States, edited by Max Page and Marla R. Miller, 162–65. University of Massachusetts Press, 2016. http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1hd19hg.31.

[16]Nigel Whiteley, “Toward a Throw-Away Culture. Consumerism, ‘Style Obsolescence’ and Cultural Theory in the 1950s and 1960s,” Oxford Art Journal 10, no. 2 (1987): 3–27. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1360444.

[17]Edward T. McMahon, and A. Elizabeth Watson, “In My Opinion: In Search of Collaboration: Historic Preservation and the Environmental Movement,” History News 48, no. 6 (1993): 26–27. http://www.jstor.org/stable/42655670.

The Vanguard of Greek Resistance Against Nazi Occupation – The EDES National Republican Greek League

In the Second World War, the story of the EDES National Republican Greek League stands as a testament to the indomitable spirit of resistance against Nazi occupation. Formed in the crucible of Greek patriotism and fueled by a fervent desire for liberation, EDES played a pivotal role in challenging the Nazi juggernaut, forging alliances with British intelligence, and laying the groundwork for Greece's post-war reconstruction.

Terry Bailey explains.

First, if you missed Terry’s article on ELAS’ role in World War 2, read it here.

Napoleon Zervas (the second from the left) with fellow EDES members.

The genesis of EDES can be traced back to the tumultuous years of the 1940s when Greece found itself engulfed in the flames of war and facing the specter of Axis domination. Founded in 1941 by Colonel Napoleon Zervas, EDES emerged as a beacon of hope amidst the darkness of occupation. Zervas, a decorated veteran of the Balkan Wars and the Greco-Turkish War, embodied the ethos of Greek nationalism and staunch anti-communism that would come to define EDES's ideology.

Unlike its communist counterparts such as ELAS (Greek People's Liberation Army), EDES espoused a vision of republican governance and sought to establish a Greece free from both Axis tyranny and the specter of communism. Drawing inspiration from Greece's storied history of resistance against foreign invaders, EDES rallied patriots from diverse backgrounds under its banner, united by a common purpose: to reclaim Greece's sovereignty and dignity.

Resistance efforts

EDES's resistance efforts were characterized by a blend of guerrilla warfare tactics, sabotage operations, and clandestine intelligence gathering. Operating primarily in the mountainous regions of Epirus and western Greece, EDES fighters waged a relentless campaign against Nazi forces, disrupting supply lines, ambushing patrols, and bolstering civilian morale through acts of defiance.

One of EDES's most notable achievements was its collaboration with British Special Operations Executive (SOE), the clandestine organization tasked with supporting and organizing resistance movements across occupied Europe. Through Operation Animals, SOE agents forged alliances with EDES operatives, and their communist counterparts in ELAS, providing crucial logistical support, training, and intelligence to bolster resistance efforts in Greece. Operation Animals was part of the larger strategic deception plan to fool the axis powers into believing that amphibious landing would occur in Greece instead of the real target of Sicily.

EDES's partnership with SOE proved instrumental in several key tactical operations, including the destruction of Axis infrastructure, the liberation of strategic territories, and the rescue of Allied prisoners of war. However, tensions occasionally simmered between EDES and its communist counterparts within the Greek resistance movement, leading to intermittent clashes and rivalries over territory and influence.

As the war progressed

As the tides of war shifted in favor of the Allies, EDES began laying the groundwork for Greece's post-war reconstruction and transition to democratic governance. With the defeat of Nazi Germany in 1945, EDES played a pivotal role in facilitating the return of exiled Greek political leaders, advocating for the establishment of a constitutional republic, and demobilizing its forces in accordance with the terms of the Varkiza Agreement.

However, EDES's aspirations for a democratic Greece were soon overshadowed by the turbulent civil conflict and the emerging Cold War rivalry between Western powers and the Soviet Union. The disbandment of EDES's armed forces and the subsequent outbreak of the Greek Civil War in 1946 marked the end of the organization’s active involvement in Greek politics.

In context

Despite its relatively short-lived existence, the legacy of EDES endures as a symbol of Greek resilience and defiance against oppression. Its members, many of whom sacrificed their lives in the struggle for freedom, are remembered as heroes of the recent Greek history. Moreover, EDES's commitment to democratic ideals and its collaboration with Allied forces during the Second World War laid the groundwork for Greece's eventual integration into the community of democratic nations.

Therefore, the story of the EDES National Republican Greek League stands as a poignant chapter in the Second World War’s resistance movements. From its humble beginnings as a fledgling guerrilla force to its pivotal role in challenging Nazi occupation, EDES embodied the spirit of Greek nationalism and defiance against tyranny.

Though its post-war aspirations were overshadowed by the prolonged civil conflict, the legacy of EDES endures as a testament to the enduring power of resistance and the human spirit in the face of adversity and the wish to be free from Nazi dictatorship or the overshadowing specter of communist rule.

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What was the role of the Greek People's Liberation Army in the 1940s? ELAS - A Legacy of Resistance

In the tumultuous landscape of the Second World War, Greece found itself at the crossroads of history. Amidst the chaos of invasion and occupation by Axis forces, a beacon of hope emerged in the form of the Greek People's Liberation Army (ELAS). Born out of necessity and fueled by the fervor of resistance, ELAS would leave an indelible mark on the nation's history, shaping its destiny for years to come.

Terry Bailey explains.

The ELAS in the Vermio Mountains, with a Soviet military group in 1944.

Formation of ELAS

The origins of ELAS can be traced back to the early years of the Nazi occupation of Greece. Following the Axis invasion in April 1941, the Greek people faced the harsh reality of foreign rule and oppression, something the Greek culture had experienced before, only this time from the Nazis. In the face of this adversity, various resistance groups began to coalesce, driven by a shared desire for liberation and independence.

One of the most significant of these groups was the National Liberation Front (EAM), a broad coalition of leftist and communist organizations. Under the umbrella of EAM, ELAS was established in 1942 as its military wing, tasked with the mission of confronting the Axis occupiers and their collaborators.

Led by a diverse array of leaders, including communist guerrilla fighters and patriotic nationalists, ELAS quickly garnered widespread support among the Greek populace. Drawing upon the rich tradition of Greek resistance throughout history, the organization tapped into a deep well of national pride and defiance, inspiring countless individuals to join its ranks.

Resistance Against the Nazis

ELAS waged a relentless campaign against the Nazi forces occupying Greece, employing guerrilla tactics and unconventional warfare to great effect. Operating primarily in the rugged terrain of the Greek countryside and mountainous region, ELAS fighters carried out ambushes, sabotage missions, and acts of sabotage, striking fear into the hearts of their enemies, while working alongside British SOE operatives.

However, ELAS's impact extended far beyond the battlefield. The organization also played a crucial role in the resistance's efforts to support and protect vulnerable civilians, providing aid, shelter, and medical care to those effected by the horrors of war, in doing so, ELAS earned the respect and admiration of the Greek people, solidifying its status as a symbol of hope and resilience in the face of tyranny, yet the organization had a hidden agenda and it was this reason that support was provided to the Greek people based on future aims and political manifestos.

Post-War Plans and the Civil War

With the end of the Second World War in 1945, Greece stood on the brink of a new era of freedom and democracy. However, the euphoria of victory was short-lived, as the country soon found itself plunged into a bitter civil conflict. At the heart of this conflict was the struggle for control between rival political factions: on one side, the communist-led forces of ELAS and its allies, and on the other, the conservative government backed by Western powers.

What began as a battle for liberation against foreign occupiers quickly escalated into a bloody internal struggle for power and ideology. ELAS, emboldened by its wartime successes and bolstered by popular support, sought to capitalize on its position to shape the future of Greece in line with its socialist vision. However, the conservative government, fearful of communist influence and determined to maintain its grip on power, moved swiftly to suppress ELAS and crush the burgeoning communist movement.

The ensuing conflict, known as the Greek Civil War, raged from 1946 to 1949, tearing the country apart and exacting a heavy toll on its people. Despite their efforts, ELAS and its allies were ultimately unable to overcome the combined might of the government forces and their Western backers, who did not wish communist rule in Greece. With the defeat of the communist backed ELAS in the Greek Civil War it was officially disarmed and disbanded, marking the end of an era of resistance and the beginning of a new chapter in Greek history. Though the communist dream of revolution had been quashed, the legacy of ELAS lived on, serving as a testament to the enduring spirit of resistance and the fight for justice and freedom.

Legacy of Resistance

Despite its ultimate defeat, the legacy of ELAS endures as a symbol of courage, sacrifice, and defiance. For many Greeks, the memory of ELAS and its heroic struggle against fascism remains a source of inspiration and pride, reminding them of the power of unity and solidarity in the face of adversity. In the decades since its dissolution, ELAS has been commemorated through monuments, memorials, and cultural artefacts, ensuring that its contributions to Greek history are never forgotten. Moreover, the values of democracy, equality, and social justice for which ELAS fought continue to resonate with people around the world, serving as a beacon of hope in an uncertain world, however, this continued underlining believe in equality is based upon the organization’s original manifesto which had a heavy left wing flavor.

As Greece navigates the challenges of the 21st century, the spirit of ELAS lives on simmering under the surface, inspiring future generations to stand up against oppression and injustice wherever they may find it. Though the battles may have ended long ago, the fight for a better world continues, fueled by the enduring legacy of the Greek People's Liberation Army and the belief by poor communities that these manifesto ideas are the answer to unequaled living conditions.

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What were the Most Daring Missions of World War 2’s X-class Miniature Submarines?

During the Second World War a remarkable but often overlooked group of submarines played a crucial role in various operations, including the preparation for the D-Day invasion. These submarines, known as X-Craft, were small, specially designed vessels tasked with daring missions that often carried immense risk. Terry Bailey explains.

An X-Craft 25 in Scotland during World War 2.

The theatre of the Second World War, where naval supremacy often dictated the outcome of battles required innovation that became the key to success. Among the many remarkable developments of the era were the X-craft miniature submarines which stood out for the audacity, effectiveness and bravery of the crews who manned these vessels. The small but mighty vessels played a crucial role in some of the war's most daring and important missions, proving that size was no obstacle to bravery or impact.

The genesis of the X-Craft can trace its pedigree back to the CSS H. L. Hunley, the small Confederate States of America submarine that played a small part in the American Civil War. The Hunley’s mission profile, like the British X-craft of the Second World War was to close with the enemy vessel and deliver an explosive device next to or near the hull of the target vessel then retired from the area.

In the Second World War, the Allied forces faced the daunting task of neutralizing the formidable German battleship Tirpitz. Anchored in the remote fjords of Norway, the Tirpitz posed a significant threat to Allied convoys and naval operations in the North Atlantic. Traditional methods of attack, such as aerial bombing, had proven ineffective against the ship's heavily fortified defenses on the vessel and in the water including surrounding hills.

In response to this challenge, British naval engineers embarked on a daring experiment: the development of miniature submarines capable of infiltrating enemy harbors that could deliver a devastating blow to high-value targets. The result was the X-Craft, a revolutionary vessel measuring just 51 feet in length manned by a crew of four.

Operation Source

The X-Craft's first major mission came in September 1943, with Operation Source—the audacious plan to attack the Tirpitz in its heavily defended anchorage at Altenfjord, Norway.

Although a larger number of X-craft were assigned to Operation Source, however, only six eventually took part the mission, due to a number of unforeseen problems. Each craft was tasked with navigating treacherous waters and evading enemy patrols to reach their target after slipping from the mother submarine that towed the X-craft across the North Sea.

The journey itself was a testament to the courage and skill of the X-Craft crews, who endured cramped conditions and the constant threat of detection as they navigated through hostile waters. Despite facing numerous challenges, including mechanical failures and adverse weather conditions, two X-Craft, named X6 and X7, successfully reached their target and deposited their side charges under the Tirpitz, there is some evidence that indicates that X5 also managed laid their charges.

Although the attack failed to sink the battleship outright, it dealt a significant blow to the ship’s operational capabilities, forcing the Germans to withdraw the Tirpitz from active duty for repairs, providing the Allies precious time. The success of Operation Source demonstrated the potential of the X-Craft as a strategic weapon and paved the way for future missions.

Operation Guidance

Encouraged by the relative success of Operation Source, the X-Craft were subsequently deployed on a series of daring missions throughout the remainder of the war, including Operation Guidance.

In April 1944, Submarines X20 up-to and including X25 were dispatched to Bergen, Norway, as part of Operation Guidance. X24, under the command of a brave crew, attacked the Laksevåg floating dock. Originally, X22 was intended for this mission. However, tragically, it had been accidentally rammed during training and sunk, resulting in the loss of all hands.

Undeterred, X24 proceeded with the mission, although the charges were initially placed under the merchant vessel Bärenfels, causing its sinking, the dock itself sustained only minor damage. Determined to succeed, X24 repeated the operation in September, this time successfully sinking the dock.

Operation Postage able

Additionally, the X-Craft submarines were instrumental in the preparatory work for Operation Overlord, the Allied invasion of Normandy. One notable operation, Postage Able, involved X20, commanded by Lieutenant KR Hudspeth.

Spending four days off the French coast, X20 conducted periscope reconnaissance of the shoreline and echo-soundings during the day. Each night, two divers would swim ashore to survey the landing beaches, collecting samples for analysis.

Despite challenges such as fatigue and adverse weather conditions, the operation provided vital intelligence for the upcoming invasion. Lieutenant Hudspeth's leadership during this mission earned him a bar to his Distinguished Service Cross.

Operation Gambit

As part of Operation Gambit, X20 and X23, each manned by a crew of five, acted as navigational beacons to guide the D-Day invasion fleet to the correct beaches. Equipped with radio beacons and echo sounders, these submarines played a crucial role in directing Canadian and British ships to suitable positions on Sword and Juno beaches. The use of oxygen bottles enabled the crews to remain submerged for extended periods, contributing significantly to the success of the operation.

XE class submarines and Far East operations

In August 1945, the new improved XE class miniature submarines were deployed in a daring attack on Japanese warships within Singapore harbor. The mission was meticulously planned, with XE3 assigned to attack the heavy cruiser Takao, while XE1 targeting the heavy cruiser Myōkō.

XE3's journey was fraught with challenges, navigating through the Straits of Johor and evading harbor defenses. It took a total of 11 hours to reach the target area, with an additional 2 hours spent locating the camouflaged Takao. Despite the constant threat of detection by Japanese,  XE3 successfully reached the Takao, deploying limpet mines and dropping two side charges. The withdrawal was executed flawlessly, and XE3 safely returned to HMS Stygian, its towing submarine.

Meanwhile, XE1 encountered delays caused by Japanese patrol craft. Realizing that reaching Myōkō before the explosives laid by XE3 detonated was impossible, the captain made the strategic decision to target the already attacked Takao. Like XE3, XE1 successfully returned to its towing submarine, HMS Spark.

The impact of the attack was profound, the Takao, already in a damaged state, sustained severe damage and was rendered unfit for further use. For their extraordinary bravery and skill, the commanders and crews of both XE1 and XE3 were honored with prestigious awards. Lieutenant Ian Edward Fraser RNR and Leading Seaman James Joseph Magennis of XE3 were awarded the Victoria Cross (VC), the highest military decoration for valor.

Sub-Lieutenant William James Lanyon Smith, RNZNVR, received the Distinguished Service Order (DSO) for his role in commanding XE3. Engine Room Artificer Third Class Charles Alfred Reed, who operated the vessel's controls, was recognized with the Conspicuous Gallantry Medal (CGM).

In recognition of their contributions, Lieutenant John Elliott Smart RNVR and Sub-Lieutenant Harold Edwin Harper, RNVR, commanding officer and crew of XE1 respectively, were awarded the DSO and the Distinguished Service Cross (DSC).

Additionally, ERA Fourth Class Henry James Fishleigh, Leading Seaman Walter Henry Arthur Pomeroy, ERA Fourth Class Albert Nairn, Acting Leading Stoker Jack Gordan Robinson, and Able Seaman Ernest Raymond Dee were all honored for their roles in bringing the midget submarines to the point of attack, receiving various commendations and mentions in dispatches.

Legacy

The X-Craft missions during World War II may have been overshadowed by larger naval engagements, but their impact was profound. These small submarines played a vital role in disrupting enemy operations and weakening Axis forces.

The impact on the outcome of the Second World War is often underestimated, yet should not be dismissed, these diminutive submarines played a crucial role in neutralizing some of the most formidable naval threats of the era, demonstrating the effectiveness of unconventional warfare tactics in an increasingly complex battlefield environment.

Moreover, the legacy of the X-Craft extends far beyond their wartime exploits. The technological innovations pioneered in the development of these vessels laid the groundwork for future advancements in submarine design and underwater warfare.

The lessons learned from their operations continue to form military strategy and tactics to this day, serving as a testament to the enduring legacy of innovation and ingenuity in times of conflict. Moreover, their daring exploits served as an inspiration for today’s generation of naval special forces.

Therefore, it should be clear that the X-Craft miniature submarines represent a remarkable chapter in the history naval warfare. From their humble origins to Second World War experimental prototypes and their pivotal role in some of the most daring missions of the Second World War, these small but mighty vessels exemplify the courage, tenacity, and ingenuity of the men who manned them. Their story serves as a powerful reminder of the indomitable spirit of those who dare to defy the odds in the pursuit of victory.

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This Godless Communism: Cold War as Religious Ideological Struggle

The Cold War pitted the USA against the USSR in all manner of ways – and a key part of that was a religious, Christian America against an atheist Soviet Union. Here, Victor Gamma returns and looks at the Cold War as a religious ideological struggle.

The 1931 demolition of the Cathedral of Christ the Saviour in Moscow.

On September 19, 1965 an episode of the popular science fiction show Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea" called "Jonah and the Whale" was broadcast. In it a Russian scientist teamed up with the Seaview to repair a damaged deep sea station. In the process, the American Admiral Nelson and the Russian end up swallowed by a giant whale while attempting to reach the station. While awaiting rescue, their unusual circumstances led to a discussion of the Biblical account of Jonah and the Whale. The Russian scoffs at the story, dismissing it as “myth.” The American, by contrast, defends the account as reliable. Additionally, throughout the episode a running conflict takes place between the Americans and Russian over the value of life. The Russian Dr Markova persistently places the mission objectives above the safety of crew members and displays a callous disregard for human life. The Americans display the opposite.

This episode was typical of American perceptions of the nature of our Cold War enemy: Soviet Russia. American pop culture often delivered pointed reminders to the American people that we were dealing with an enemy that was cold-hearted, ruthless and above all, godless. In fact, Russian or Slavic villains became staple in cinema and TV as soon as the Cold War “heated up” beginning in the late 1940s. The godless communist narrative became pervasive in the years that followed. The Jonah episode also reflected long-standing American values and self-perception as champions of goodness and virtue, a fundamental aspect of which is respect for traditional religion.

Traditional religion

The conflict between communist statism and Western values of freedom was often seen as reflecting the spiritual and moral truths grounded in traditional religion.

Individual and economic freedom was seen to be based on religious ethics - God -given rights that no government could take away. Communist hostility and threats toward this freedom and religion was a continuous theme in the very anticommunist media of the day.

Popular culture joined in the fight long before the Jonah episode. This was largely the result of an organization keenly feeling the threat of “godless communism; the Catholic Catechetical Guild Educational Society. In 1947 they published a 50-page political pamphlet/comic book warning of the threat faced by all Americans: the ruthless scheming of our own home-grown American Communist Party. The comic book title warned: Is This Tomorrow? The book described a hypothetical future communist coup d’état in America. Its lurid descriptions and imagery  was designed to shock the reader into alarm over how the communists would take power aided by an ill-informed American public. Assisting the communists were a number of gullible “useful idiots” including well-meaning but misguided American officials. One is a Bible-burning politician. The Catholic Educational Society made the point that those who burn or oppose the Bible and Christianity are terrible people, that the communists target not just a political or economic ideology but are the enemy of everything decent and good. In the comic, clergy of all variety suffer severe persecution.  At the back of the book readers could find the “Ten Commandments of Citizenship.” One of these was “Follow your own religion.” Religion is encouraged as an important aspect of citizenship. A best-seller, about 4 million copies were printed and distributed to churches throughout the country. Is this Tomorrow? was not the only attempt to clarify the spiritual struggle. Treasure Chest, a comic book distributed to private, religious schools, contained a regular feature entitled "This Godless Communism."

Deeply embedded values

Although featuring a hysterical tone, these publications reflected values deeply embedded in American culture. Our religious ideology was not forced on our people. The phrase "under God" was not added to the pledge of Allegiance until 1954, but this does not mean that public education was void of any religious sentiment prior to that time. 

Long tradition promoted  decorating the walls of many elementary classrooms with some kind of acknowledgement or faith in God. One such example was a class chalkboard accidentally uncovered by construction crews at an Oklahoma High School in 2015. The crew discovered a chalkboard full of lessons, perfectly preserved, as they were written in 1917. One section of the chalkboard is dedicated to an encouragement to patriotism which reads "I give my head, my heart, and my life to my God and our nation indivisible with Justice for all." A generation later this tradition continued. In a 2nd grade classroom in New Jersey in 1949, the following display was featured next to the classroom entrance; a prominent place where all could see;

A Child’s Grace

Thank you for the world so sweet

Thank you for the food we eat

Thank you for the birds that sing

Thank you God for everything

Additionally, in classrooms across the nation could be heard the refrains of America’s national songs, laced with references to God and Scripture; America, America, God shed His grace on Thee, for instance. Building on this tradition and faced with a mortal challenge from atheistic Marxism, 1950s America underwent a significant spiritual revival in which values were frequently reflected In popular film as well.

For example, in 1951 the film My Son John hit theaters across America sending Cold War shivers down the spines of theater goers. The antagonist, John, comes home after living abroad for a while. His parents & others in the community soon notice his strange behavior. Among other “un-American” behaviors are his strange refusal to attend church with the family. Eventually, it comes out that while abroad he converted to communism.

At roughly the same time the popular television show "Life is worth Living" featured the eloquent Bishop Fulton Sheen. His Excellency dedicated episodes of the TV program to the topic of communism. To an audience of millions the charismatic Bishop articulated a devastating critique of Marxist ideology. He concluded with a thundering denunciation of it as a soulless and deadly threat to civilization.

Leaders

America’s political leaders were also not shy about invoking their nation's spiritual superiority. Congressman Charles J. Kersten believed it was “immoral and unchristian to negotiate a permanent agreement with forces (communism) which by every religious creed and moral precept are evil.”

Kersten was by no means the only public official emphasizing the spiritual and moral aspect of the conflict. In a speech that marked the beginning of “McCarthyism” delivered on February 9, 1950, Wisconsin Senator Joseph McCarthy voiced the shocking claim that recent communist gains, such as the “loss” of China to the Reds, could be explained by traitors within the State Department. McCarthy made sure to explain WHY this was such a problem. The nature of communism, he declared, is “not the usual war between nations for land areas or other material gains but a war between two diametrically opposed ideologies. The great difference between our Western Christian world and the atheistic Communist world is not political, it is moral.” 

This championing of Christian values in the face of the world-wide enemy of religion went all the up to the White House. On July 30, 1954 President Eisenhower addressed the nation on the subject of religion; "... we are reaffirming the transcendence of religious faith in America’s heritage and future; in this way we shall constantly strengthen those spiritual weapons which forever will be our country’s most powerful resource in peace and war.”    

The occasion was the passing of Public Law 84-140, concerning “inscriptions on currency and coins.” The law declared that “all United States currency shall bear the inscription "In God We Trust." Soon everyday business transactions would remind millions of Americans of the important place of religion in America. 

What would move the President to deliver an address on such a mundane topic as coin inscriptions - Dwight Eisenhower was not particularly known for his religiosity. In his own words he had "gotten a long way" from his religious upbringing.  But that was soon to change. Even earlier, in 1953, he had reached out to a young, up-and -coming evangelist named Billy Graham. He had met the revivalist on a number of occasions. The two formed a bond that would last to the end of Eisenhower's life.

Besides Graham, other eloquent preachers influenced the President.    On February 2, 1954 Eisenhower attended a service at New York Avenue Presbyterian Church in Washington DC. The sermon by Reverend George Doherty would prove to be very influential on the President. Doherty declared; "To omit the words ‘under God’ in the Pledge of Allegiance is to omit the definitive factor in the American way of life,” He further argued that “an atheistic American is a contradiction in terms,” … “you deny the Christian ethic, you fall short of the American ideal of life.”

In 1952 the Knights of Columbus began petitioning the government that there should be some reference to God in the Pledge recited in classrooms across the country. Specifically, they wanted the words “under God” added. They found a sympathetic ear in Louis Rabaut, Democratic Representative from Michigan. Rabaut was a fervent Catholic with nine children. The Knights movement caught his attention. He introduced a bill on the floor of congress stating that the reference to God was needed to "as a public proclamation of our religious traditions" and a "Bulwark against communism." Rabaut also declared what a majority of Americans believed when he said “Love of country is a devotion to an institution that finds its origin and development in the moral law …Our country was born under God and only under God will it live as a citadel of freedom.”  “To omit the words ‘under God’ in the Pledge of Allegiance is to omit the definitive factor in the American way of life.”

Eisenhower’s backing

When Eisenhower's own pastor championed the cause, Ike threw in his support as well. 

He believed he had a good reason. He had seen first-hand the horrors of totalitarianism as he went into the liberated Nazi death camps in 1945. The Cold War, then raging fiercely, challenged the leader of the free world not only militarily and economically but morally and spiritually as well and Eisenhower was determined to bolster American ability to withstand it.

Besides money, On April 8, 1954 postage stamps appeared for the first time with the words "In God we trust." In the biggest ceremony of its kind in the history of the United States Post Office Department, attended by the highest officials in the country, including President Eisenhower, the stamp was inaugurated with the words. "It will set the stage . . . for the introduction of the nation’s first regular stamp bearing a religious significance.”

In the following year, 1955, American elementary school children recited the Pledge of Allegiance with the new words “Under God" added to the pledge. During the Cold War many organizations eagerly joined in the crusade of defending  religion against the forces of communism. John Swift Knights of Columbus began to petition the government to add the words “under God” to the Pledge of Allegiance.

On Flag Day of the same year, President Dwight Eisenhower signed the bill that added the phrase to the pledge schoolchildren recited every morning. The original pledge, written in 1892, had contained no reference to religion. To emphasize the point still further, in 1956 the official motto of the United States became "In God We Trust." 

In 1958 Christianity Today Magazine reported on the low reputation of communists; “The word “communism” suggests all manner of evil. You need but whisper, “He is a Communist,” and, if your neighbor believes you, the alleged Communist could next be charged with almost any crime whatever and your neighbor would not be surprised. The Communist has the role of international villain once held by the Fascist, except that the Communist enjoys an even worse reputation. He would rob his own brother blind; he would betray his own parents to the police; he would delight in desecrating churches, for he is an atheist.”           

How close was this media narrative to reality? The portrayal of Russians as cold-hearted, inhumane and anti-religious were not simply empty platitudes of pop culture. Just before the Jonah episode, the Soviet Union, although not officially atheist, had conducted the “anti-religious campaign” (1958-1964). Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev was very hostile towards religion. During his leadership the number of churches declined from 22,000 to 7,873. In his speech at the plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU, Khrushchev made sure anti-religious propaganda was promoted. June, 1963.

By contrast, at this same time in the Soviet Union and Red China religion suffered from often harsh persecution. Sometimes the anti-religious propaganda and measures rose to the level of the anti-Jewish policies of Nazi Germany. The Soviet National anthem ignores religion and attributes the existence of the nation to “the people's mighty hand.” Events known as “youth anti-religious evenings” were held which included dramatizations and songs characterized as “humorous, show how priests, fortune-tellers and other rogues deceive believers with imperishable relics, holy tales and other rubbish.”

Such policies made it clear to Americans that it was necessary to face down this darkness with even more powerful forces of moral and spiritual strength.  In the 1950s and even into the 1960s the American nation was in a mood to embrace and safeguard its historic spiritual heritage, including government action promoting religion - such as on postage stamps, unfettered by constitutional qualms.

In context

This battle continued up to the end of the Cold War. Ultimately, the Soviet colossus collapsed. The Democratic, free market system was proclaimed the Victor. The Soviet Empire has been replaced by a fragmented shadow of its former self. This does not mean, though, that Russia no longer has dangerous ambitions and only time will tell what role religion will play in any future confrontation.

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References

https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/belief/2009/nov/10/religion-christianity

How 'One Nation' Didn't Become 'Under God' Until The '50s Religious Revival |

How Dwight Eisenhower Found God in the White House | HISTORY

US Anti-Imperialism in the Middle East: The Suez Crisis

Do you know about the time that the USA went against Israel and the Western powers in the Middle East? Here, Andrew Patterson tells us about the 1956 Suez Crisis, when the US did not support Britain, France, and Israel’s ambitions against Egypt.

A picture of Egyptian military vehicles that have been damaged in the Sinai Peninsula.

The Suez Canal Crisis was like a high-stakes poker game of global power. Imagine Egypt’s leader, Nasser, suddenly nationalizing the Suez Canal, basically a lifeline for world trade. This move freaks out London and Paris, sparking a secret buddy-up with Israel to snatch it back. Then struts in the USA, led by Eisenhower, looking to shake up the global power playlist. It was a showdown that not only reshaped the Middle East’s role in the Cold War but also turned the US into the surprise superhero for Egypt against the old-world colonial vibe. Diving into the Suez Crisis, we see the US playing the role of an unlikely hero, championing Egypt in the epic struggle to shake off colonial chains.

The Suez Canal’s a big deal—key for shipping oil and goods, and in the 1950s a colonial chess piece for way too long. Enter Egypt's bold move to nationalize it. This wasn't just about owning a canal; it was Egypt shouting from the rooftops that they were done being a pawn in the global game of thrones.

During the Cold War's peak, with the world split between capitalism and communism, the U.S. hit a fork in the road. Under Eisenhower, America ditched its old gunboat diplomacy for a surprising new look: anti-imperialism. Suddenly, the U.S. started sounding like it was rooting for the underdog, aligning its playbook with nations tired of colonial hangovers. It was a game-changer, showing the world that the U.S. was ready to mix things up and support countries carving out their own destinies.

The Eisenhower Doctrine

Eisenhower's foreign policy was like walking a tightrope—with the U.S. juggling the need to curb Soviet spread while ditching the old-school, imperialist tactics of its European buddies. The Eisenhower Doctrine of 1957 was his way of saying, "We've got your back" to Middle Eastern countries fighting off communism, but the Suez Crisis was the real litmus test, pushing the U.S. to flex its anti-imperialist muscles sooner.

In 1956 Egypt's President Nasser Declaring the canal as Egypt’s own was a game-changing moment, throwing down the gauntlet against old colonial shadows and ushering in a fresh chapter of independence and self-rule.

Old Powers Collude

Britain, France, and Israel didn't waste any time cooking up a military response. Their plan? Israel would kick off an invasion, with British and French troops jumping in under the guise of keeping the canal open. But let's be real, their eyes were on the bigger prize: knocking Nasser off his pedestal and taking back the canal. This move was straight out of the old colonial playbook—an attempt to turn back the clock to a time when gunboat diplomacy and empire-building were the order of the day.

When Britain, France, and Israel moved on Egypt, the U.S. threw a curveball by condemning the invasion, stunning its usual pals. This was a loud and clear signal from America: the days of imperialist playbooks were done. Eisenhower and crew, sticking to their anti-imperialist guns, viewed the invasion as a potential spark for a much larger fire, possibly drawing the Soviet Union into a broader conflict that could destabilize the Cold War's delicate balance.

New Boss New Rules

Breaking with tradition, the U.S. stood firm against old friends Britain and France, plus Israel, over their joint military move. Eisenhower didn't just talk a big game; he backed it up with the threat of economic sanctions against Britain, who at the time was pretty much banking on U.S. financial aid.

In this era, the U.S. didn't just stand by; it dove into some serious diplomacy to stop the fighting. By defending Egypt's right to manage the Suez Canal, the U.S. was basically broadcasting a new rulebook to the world: national sovereignty was in, and old-school colonial aggression was out. This stance was a global announcement, especially aimed at the Soviet Union, that the U.S. had zero patience for imperialist antics, even from its best buddies.

The U.S. used the United Nations as a stage to rally global opinion. By advocating for a resolution that demanded a ceasefire and the retreat of the invaders, America emerged as a peacemaker, pushing for diplomacy over force. This move not only boosted the U.S.'s rep as a champion of international law and the UN but also showed it as a superpower ready to back smaller nations against colonial leftovers.

The crisis ended with Britain and France yielding to the pressure, mainly from the U.S., and pulling out their troops—a win for Egypt and a face-palm moment for the European duo. The landscape of global politics was forever altered. This wasn't just about who controlled a crucial waterway; it was a turning point, signaling the end of European colonial clout and the beginning of an era dominated by U.S. influence. The retreat of British and French troops, nudged along by the U.S., waved goodbye to the age of empires stretching their borders too far.

The U.S. walked away taller, having stuck to its guns on national sovereignty and a clear no to go-it-alone military moves—a big leap from the days of showing force first and asking questions later. Emerging with a reputation for valuing sovereignty and shunning solo military ventures, the U.S. marked a departure from centuries of Western might-makes-right tactics. For Egypt and Nasser, it was a clear win, boosting Nasser's standing as an anti-colonial hero and igniting nationalist passions beyond the Middle East.

The crisis also reshaped global power balances, underscoring the dwindling might of Britain and France while spotlighting the Middle East as a self-determining region, increasingly important on the world stage, often with superpower support or interference. Reflecting on the Suez Crisis, we're reminded of diplomacy's value, the importance of supporting the underdog, and the dynamic forces that mold our world. It's a narrative of transformation, confrontation, and hope for a fairer international community.

Andrew Patterson is an amateur history enthusiast who writes for https://easternchronicles.me/ , a website dedicated to Middle Eastern history, Travel writing & archeology.

Reclaiming the “One Nation” Tradition: What are the Lessons from the Past and Policy Options for a Future Conservative Administration?

For several months now, polls have suggested a sweeping victory for the Labour Party at the next British general election; an alarming prospect for the government and one that recently led some Conservatives to openly call for a change of leader in the hope that this will remove the likelihood of electoral armageddon and the end of 14 years of Conservative governance. Here, Vittorio Trevitt considers this in a historical context – and looks at what could happen in the future.

Benjamin Disraeli, circa 1873.

Much of the Conservative administration’s polling plight is arguably the result of the increased levels of poverty and wage stagnation that the party has presided over. Throughout its history, however, and in comparison to the current and more recent Conservative ministries, the Conservative Party has on many occasions upheld a noteworthy tradition that champions a degree of governmental action to lessen inequalities and elevate opportunity. That tradition is the One Nation brand of British Conservatism.

The origins of this tradition can be traced to the one-time Conservative leader Benjamin Disraeli, who spoke of England in a novel he composed, “Sybil,” as being made up “of two nations – one rich, one poor,” and as prime minister introduced a wide range of reforms aimed at bridging that gap. Amongst these included measures to improve the legal status of unions, improvements in living conditions and sanitation in urban areas, food safety standards, and restrictions on the working hours of women and children. The term “One Nation” came to be associated with members of the Conservative Party who believed that Conservatism should reach out to all sections of British society.

The principles of One Nation Conservatism were evident in the social policies of Disraeli’s successors, who utilised the power of the state to mitigate numerous social evils. The 1887 Truck Amendment Act broadened the range of workers protected by legislation ensuring that they be paid in coins rather than in tickets or goods that could only be used at employer-owned shops. The 1889 Cotton Cloth Factories Act regulated the degree of humidity and temperature in such establishments, while the 1890 Housing of the Working Classes Act encouraged local authority public housing schemes. An Education Act of 1891 provided, as noted by one study, “grants for schools willing to abolish fees for children between three and fifteen years of age.” The 1891 Factory and Workshop Act included various provisions aimed at safeguarding labour including an expansion of sanitary regulations, and the following year a Shop Hours Regulation Act sought to limit the weekly working hours of shop assistants under the age of 18 to 74, which included times for meals. In 1897, an important Workmen’s Compensation Act was passed that, while not universal, nevertheless legally obligated employers to pay compensation to workers when accidents occurred.

Early 19th century

The early Twentieth Century also witnessed the passage of much legislation bearing the stamp of One Nation Conservatism. Arthur Balfour’s 1902-1905 administration passed legislation setting up Distress Committees to reduce the hardships suffered by those experiencing unemployment by means of supporting such individuals in finding employment. A 1923 Industrial Insurance Act offered safeguards for millions of policyholders, while the 1925 Merchant Shipping (International Labour Convention) Act provided improved rights for seamen. That same year, a permanent Food Council was set up to prevent food price profiteering, and the Lead Paint (Protection Against Poisoning) Act from the following year sought to protect paint trade workers from lead poisoning. A Mining Act introduced that same year provided for a 5% levy on royalties to help support the installation of pithead baths. For people in rural areas, the 1926 Housing (rural workers') act entitled owners of rural cottages to loans and grants for home improvements, while the 1928 Agricultural Credits Act furnished farmers with a loan system to help them in purchasing their farms.

This reforming trend would continue throughout the Thirties, in spite of the social and economic turmoil of the Great Depression. New housing laws were passed with the intention of alleviating bad housing, and in 1934 a Milk in School scheme was launched that over 2 million children benefited from. The 1936 Agriculture Act set up an unemployment insurance scheme for agricultural workers, while the 1937 National Health Insurance (Juvenile Contributors and Young Persons) Act allowed for medical treatment to be provided for juveniles the moment they entered insurable employment, instead of waiting until the full health insurance age of 16 to receive such care. Also that year, a Widows’, Orphans’ and Old Age Contributory Pensions (Voluntary Contributions) Act was passed that offered voluntary insurance to those left out of a previous scheme for beneficiaries of such benefits. The 1938 Poor Law Amendment Act provided for the payment of cash allowances to inmates aged 65 and over, while a Blind Persons Actpassed that same year reduced the old age pension eligibility age from 50 to 40 years for blind persons. Other measures included the 1939 Cancer Act, which improved facilities for the treating people with cancer, the 1937 Factory Act (which enhanced workplace safety standards), and the granting of paid holidays to about an additional 1 million workers via the 1938 Holidays with Pay Act.

Post-war period

The values of One-Nation Conservatism were also evident in many of the policies carried out by successive Conservative governments following the end of the Second World War. Although responsible for dubious decisions including the re-introduction of prescription charges (which was legislated for but never implemented under the previous Labour administration) and the 1957 Rent Act (which decontrolled rents throughout much of the private sector), they also carried out notable reforms such as a major housebuilding programme (which produced 300,000 homes per annum), grants to encourage home improvements, and new social entitlements such as a severe disablement occupational allowance for war pensioners and a home confinement grant for new mothers. A Small Farmer Scheme was also set up in 1959 to assist such farmers, with one historian asserting that, while the scheme only received a modest amount of money, the principle was novel “since it offered assistance only to those farmers whose businesses were not economic yet were capable of becoming so.” Edward Heath’s 1970-74 ministry, although maligned with justification for abolishing free milk for primary school children between the ages of 8 and 11, introduced such innovations as rent allowances, an invalidity benefit for those with severe disabilities, and the Family Income Supplement; a top-up benefit for those earning low wages. In addition, the fair rents system that the 1964-70 Labour government introduced for private tenants was extended to those in the public sector.

The 1971 Merchant Shipping (Oil Pollution) Act made oil tanker owners liable for any oil pollution they caused, while the Motor Vehicle (Passenger Insurance) Act of that year brought all passengers under liability insurance coverage. The 1971 Law Reform (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act, in the words of one study, provided “that in assessing the claim of a widow neither her prospects of remarriage nor her actual remarriage would be taken into account,” while the 1973 Matrimonial Causes Act provided financial support “for parties to marriage and children of family.” A comprehensiveLand Compensation Act was also passed in 1973, designed to offer compensation to individuals whose properties had been negatively impacted by road and redevelopment schemes or had been compulsorily purchased. This included special home loss payments to occupiers in addition to any entitlement to normal market value payment, advance compensation payments of up to 90% of the amount the acquiring authority estimated, a legal bar on the practice whereby compensation was lowered in cases where local councils rehoused persons in a council house and, for the first time, the right of certain business tenants to compensation for removal expenses and trade loss.

Thatcher era

In many respects, the Heath Ministry represented the swansong of One Nation Conservatism, despite having been elected on a platform calling for reduced economic state intervention. The onset of Thatcherism undeniably sounded the death-knell of the Party’s One Nation tradition as a driving force in policy-making. Margaret Thatcher’s rise to the Conservative leadership in 1975 signalled an ideological turn to the Right; one that would find substance in the numerous ministries she led from 1979 onwards. Adhering to the belief that the State should limit its role in social and economic affairs as much as possible, Thatcherism presided over de-industrialisation on a large scale together with curbs on benefit rights. Paradoxically, while average living standards rose, the percentage of Britons living in povertyalso went up. The succeeding New Labour governments, while maintaining Thatcherite economic reforms and presiding over tests for certain benefits, facilitated a steady drop in poverty during most of their time in office; a positive development arguably attributable to new social programmes like pensioner and working family tax credits. Ironically, it was measures such as these that pre-Thatcherite Conservative ministries often rolled out themselves.

To the present

Given the circumstances, it may be time for the Conservative Party to reclaim the “One Nation” mantle and adopt a more activist strategy aimed at making greater use of the state as a force for social change if it hopes to remain in office after 2024.

More can be done to stimulate the social housing sector; a move that a 2023 poll suggested would be very popularamongst Conservative voters. A long-term care insurance system like the one established in Holland under the right-of-centre De Jong cabinet in 1968 (which remains in place to this day) could alleviate the financial burden of households in providing care for elderly relatives. The adequacy of sick pay need addressing, with Britain ranking amongst the lowest in Europe in this category. In addition, income poverty can be tackled by raising the level of unemployment payments, with the UKs replacement rate far below most OECD members like Luxembourg, Iceland and Slovenia. The Conservatives could also improve the family benefits system by introducing new social programmes for families. A Recreational Allowance could assist families with paying for family activities such as going to the cinema, while a Family Holiday Allowance could help pay towards the cost of holiday activities. In education, the Conservative Party could follow the example of Jamaica’s governing centre-right Labour Party, which recently announced the goal of providing free tuition for all public university students; a move that would make Jamaica the first Caribbean nation to do so.

There is, therefore, much in the One Nation tradition that the modern day Conservative Party can learn from, while there exist a number of policy options consistent with that tradition which either the current or a future Conservative administration could introduce. Adopting a more progressive policy agenda would not only be beneficial to the Conservative Party in political terms and in keeping with its historical heritage, but by tackling disadvantage and raising levels of personal health and wellbeing, it would be beneficial to the British people as a whole.

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Who was Orde Wingate? And was he a World War 2 Military Maverick?

Military history has produced certain figures that stand out not just for their tactical brilliance, but for their unorthodox methods and unwavering commitment to their cause. Among these figures is Orde Wingate, a man whose name evokes both admiration and controversy. Wingate's life, was marked by innovation, audacity, and controversy, whose impact reverberates through the ages.

Terry Bailey explains.

Orde Wingate in 1943.

Born in 1903 in Naini Tal, India, to British Christian missionaries, Wingate's upbringing instilled in him a deep sense of duty and moral righteousness. His formative years in the diverse landscapes of Asia shaped his unconventional worldview and prepared him for the challenges he would face later in life.

Graduating from the Royal Military Academy at Sandhurst in 1923, Wingate embarked on a military career that would defy convention at every turn. Wingate's early experiences in Palestine during the 1930s laid the groundwork for his unconventional approach to warfare. While serving with the British Mandatory forces, he became deeply involved in counterinsurgency operations against Arab guerrilla forces. It was here that Wingate first experimented with small, highly mobile units operating behind enemy lines—a tactic that would define his later achievements.

However, it was during the Second World War that Wingate truly left his mark on military history. Tasked with combating the Japanese advance in Southeast Asia, Wingate devised a daring plan to harass enemy supply lines and disrupt their communication networks. This plan culminated in the formation of the Chindits, special operations units composed of British, Gurkha, and Burmese soldiers trained in unconventional warfare tactics.

World War Two

The Chindits' first operation, codenamed Operation Longcloth, saw Wingate's forces penetrate deep into Japanese-held territory in Burma. Operating far beyond the reach of conventional supply lines, Wingate's men endured harsh conditions and constant enemy harassment. Despite sustaining heavy casualties, the Chindits succeeded in their primary objective of disrupting Japanese operations and bolstering Allied morale.

Wingate's unorthodox methods and uncompromising leadership style earned him both admirers and detractors within the military establishment. While some hailed him as a visionary strategist, others criticized his disregard for traditional military doctrine and his often abrasive personality. Nonetheless, Wingate's accomplishments on the battlefield spoke for themselves, and his influence continued to grow as the war progressed.

One of Wingate's most enduring legacies was his advocacy for the use of airborne forces in military operations. Recognizing the potential of airborne operations to strike deep behind enemy lines with speed and precision, Wingate lobbied tirelessly for their expansion within the Allied forces. His efforts culminated in the use of glider and other airborne based activity dedicated to conducting airborne operations in support of ground forces, specifically in Operation Thursday.

A number of traditional Generals suggested the Chindits operations had a negative effect on the Asian war effort, with some historians indicating that Wingate’s ideas were flawed in many respects, simply because the Japanese Army did not have Western-style supply lines to disrupt, and tended to ignore logistics generally.

However, the Japanese commander, Mutaguchi Renya, later stated that Operation Thursday had a significant effect on the campaign, saying "The Chindit invasion ... had a decisive effect on these operations ... they drew off the whole of 53 Division and parts of 15 Division, one regiment of which would have turned the scales at Kohima.”

Tragically, Wingate's life was cut short on March, 24 1944 when the plane a USAAF B-25 Mitchell bomber of the 1st Air Commando Group in which he was flying crashed into jungle-covered hills in the present-day state of Manipur, India killing all passengers aboard, including Wingate. His death robbed the world of one of its most innovative military minds, but his legacy lived on in the countless lives he touched and the strategies he pioneered.

Legacy

Needless to say, in the decades since his passing, Wingate's reputation has undergone a re-evaluation, with many historians recognizing his contributions to modern warfare. His emphasis on unconventional tactics, small-unit operations, and strategic mobility laid the groundwork for the special operations today, along with other charismatic military leaders such as Lt Colonel David, Stirling, SAS, Major Vladimir Peniakoff, No. 1 Demolition Squadron, PPA, Major Ralph Alger Bagnold, Long Range Desert Group, Lt Colonel Herbert George "Blondie" Hasler, Royal Marines special operations and Lt Colonel William Joseph "Wild Bill" Donovan, OSS to name a few.

Moreover, Orde Wingate’s unyielding commitment to his principles and his willingness to challenge the status quo serve as an inspiration to military leaders around the world. Orde Wingate's life serves as a testament to the power of innovation, determination, and unorthodox thinking. In an era defined by uncertainty and upheaval, his example is a reminder that true greatness lies not in conformity, but in the courage to chart a new course and pursue it relentlessly.

Reflecting on his legacy, it is important to remember that Orde Wingate was not only a military genius, but as a symbol of the indomitable human courage and personal moral standards that drove him to strive for achievement without personal consideration.

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