Grand Duchess Anastasia Nikolaevna Romanova (1901-1918) was the youngest daughter of Tsar Nicholas II, Russia’s last Tsar. While many of us know how Nicholas II and his family were killed by the Bolsheviks, so ending the Romanov Dynasty, many of us know less about Nicholas’ children. Here, Jordann Stover tells us about Grand Duchess Anastasia.

Grand Duchess Anastasia in court dress, 1910.

Grand Duchess Anastasia in court dress, 1910.

We’re all familiar with the auburn haired beauty drawn up by 20th Century Fox, the orphaned girl rescued by a young boy at the height of an attack on her family’s palace. The animated movie, Anastasia, was released in 1997 and has since become a childhood classic for a generation of children. We watched Anya slowly transform into the missing Grand Duchess; we cheered as she fell in love with Dimitri and hid our eyes when the menacing Rasputin appeared on screen in an eerie green hue. For many of us, this story was the first time we’d dipped our feet into the subject of history, marveling as our parents told us the true story-- that there had once been a powerful Romanov family that was murdered but the remains for the youngest daughter had never been found. As young kids, we hoped that Anastasia would one day remember who she was, that this real princess would get the happily ever after awarded to her fictional counterpart.

 

The life of Anastasia

In 2007, the final two remains of the Romanov family were found in a Siberian forest. The state of their bodies was consistent with the executioners’ notes and were then confirmed to be Romanovs via DNA testing. With that case closed and any chance of the Grand Duchess or any of her family members surviving their basement room assassination in the Ipatiev House, the real story becomes inherently more interesting. Who was Anastasia? What is the story behind those ghost-like characters who danced along to the iconic “Once Upon a December”? Anastasia was born Grand Duchess Anastasia Nikolaevna Romanova, the youngest daughter and fourth child of the last Tsar of Russia, Nicholas II, on June 18, 1901. While her parents had been hoping for a son and heir, they loved their little Anastasia. She was named for St. Anastasia in the Russian Orthodox Church, the saint known as "the breaker of chains". A fitting title as Anastasia broke nearly every rule set in order to chain her to the idea of what an imperial daughter should have been.

Even when Anastasia was a small baby, her personality was larger than the Alexander Palace itself. She was best friends with her big sister, Maria with whom she was fondly referred to as “the Little Pair” in contrast to her older sisters Olga and Tatiana who were the “the Big Pair”. The four were close but so incredibly different; unlike the introspective Olga, the dutiful Tatiana, and the loving Maria-- Anastasia was referred to as “Schwipsig” meaning “little mischief” in German. She did the same needlework, the same chores and academics as her three sisters but she desired something far more fun than listening to tutors lecture for hours. Anastasia had a knack for comedy, often performing little skits with her sisters. She not only thrived on making people laugh, she excelled at the art. Helen Azar notes in her short biography of the fourth Grand Duchess that “some remarked that [Anastasia] was destined for the stage. Even in the darkest of times for her family following her father’s abdication and their arrest amidst country-wide revolution, she managed to draw laughter from her loved ones, the sound surely echoing off the walls of their prison house in Ekaterinburg for the Bolshevik guards to hear. 

Her personality, though fun-loving and entertaining, was not always charming to the people around her. As a small child, she was known to be a bit of a brat, her will too strong to be held back by her English, Victorian nannies. She would climb trees, hide away in cupboards, and refuse orders. She was a master at pranks and naughtiness, the blue eyed, strawberry blonde haired little girl dissolving into fits of giggles as she tripped servants and her siblings. She was not always the ideal playmate with other children, even noted by her cousin, Princess Nina Georgeivena, as being “nasty to the point of being evil”. Anna Vyrubova notes of an instance in her memoirs where Anastasia played a bit too rough with her sisters-- the four sisters had been having a snowball fight in the yards of their Polish palace when Anastasia knocked Tatiana to the ground with a snowball full of rocks.

 

Birth of a male heir

When her little brother, Tsarevich Alexei, was born, the family and country rejoiced. Russia remained one of the only monarchies at the time to refuse women the throne. Because of the Law that had been put into place by the son of Catherine the Great, the fact that Tsar Nicholas already had four daughters, they meant little to nothing for the Romanov line of succession. The birth of a little boy in 1904 meant that the Tsarina had fulfilled her duties as Empress and that the four sisters had a little one to dote on. When it was discovered that their baby brother was sick, that he had the dreaded Hemophilia, the four young girls became even more protective of the boy. They kept a close eye on him, sitting by his bedside when he was sick and writing letters when they were not permitted to visit. Despite his sickness that often left him bedridden, Alexei was a vivacious, curious boy. Who better than to be his partner in crime? His big sister, Schwipsig. The two of them were incredibly close, the absolute best of friends. Together, they no doubt ran their governesses ragged.

 

Towards the end

As Anastasia aged to the seventeen year old she would forever be frozen as, she mellowed out. She still enjoyed making people laugh, still pushed the boundaries of what was allowed-- for example, during the family’s time under house arrest Anastasia was nearly shot for peering out a window and then stuck her tongue out at the guard who had fired at her. Anastasia went from playing silly pranks and sticking pins on the chairs of her tutors to becoming the relief that her family desperately needed. One can hardly imagine what it must have been like for the teenage girl locked up with her future in constant danger. She and her family had no clue what awaited them, they did not know if they’d ever be allowed outside for more than an hour under guard ever again, they had no clue if they’d be allowed to see their friends, to dance, paint, sing, or any of the other number of activities they’d so loved prior to the Russian Revolution. Anastasia, determined to maintain her status as the joy of the family, must have felt an enormous weight on her small shoulders. How was she to make her father, who had lost his kingdom, laugh? Her eldest sister, Olga, who was becoming thinner and more depressed with each passing day-- how was she to bring a smile back to her face? Her brother who was in agonizing pain, her mother who was suffering from her own ailments-- could she make things better for them? We will never know if Anastasia was able to accomplish these goals but we can hope. We can hope for this Anastasia, the real girl with messy hair and skinned knees who lost her life before it had truly begun, just as we hoped for the animated princess of our adolescence. 

 

What do you think of Princess Anastasia? Let us know below.

References

Azar, Helen (2017). GRAND DUCHESS ANASTASIA NIKOLAEVNA: 18 JUNE, 1901 – 17 JULY, 1918. theromanovfamily.com

Eagar, Margaret (1906). Six Years at the Russian Court. Alexanderpalace.org

Massie, Robert K. (1967). Nicholas and Alexandra. New York: Dell Publishing

Vyrubova, Anna. Memories of the Russian Court. Alexanderpalace.org.

Nostradamus (1503-1566) is perhaps the most famous prophesier in history. Despite being born more than 500 years ago, he remains well known. Here, Jamil Bakhtawar introduces Nostradamus and tells us about 7 of his most shocking prophecies.

An 1846 portrait of Nostradamus.

An 1846 portrait of Nostradamus.

Michel de Nostredame (also known as Nostradamus), was a French physician and astrologer who was born in December 1503 in Saint-Rémy-de-Provence, Provence, France.  He is also known as a reputed and prolific seer. He published a collection of prophecies that have since become widely famous and is best known for his book Les Propheties (The Prophecies – Amazon US | Amazon UK), the first edition of which appeared in 1555.

Since the publication of the book, which has rarely been out of print since his death, Nostradamus has attracted a following that, along with much of the popular press, credits him with predicting many major world events. 

Most academic sources maintain that the associations made between world events and Nostradamus’ predictions are largely the result of misinterpretations or mistranslations (sometimes deliberate) or else are so tenuous as to render them useless as evidence of any genuine predictive power.

 

Nostradamus in his own time

His book The Prophecies, received a mixed reaction when it was published. Some people thought Nostradamus was a servant of evil, a fake, or insane, while many of the elite evidently thought otherwise. 

Catherine de’ Medici, wife of King Henry II of France, was one of Nostradamus’s greatest admirers. After reading his almanacs for 1555, which hinted at unnamed threats to the royal family, she summoned him to Paris to explain them and to draw up horoscopes for her children. At the time, Nostradamus feared that he would be beheaded, but by the time of his death in 1566, Queen Catherine had made him Counselor and Physician-in-Ordinary to her son, the young King Charles IX of France. Since his death, the Prophecies have continued to be popular.

 

Nostradamus’s predictions

Nostradamus has been credited, for the most part in hindsight, with predicting numerous events in world history, from the Great Fire of London, and the rise of Napoleon and Adolf Hitler, to the September 11 attacks on the World Trade Center.

The prophecies retold and expanded by Nostradamus figured largely in popular culture in the 20th and 21st centuries. As well as being the subject of hundreds of books (both fiction and nonfiction), Nostradamus’s life has been depicted in several films, and his life and writings continue to be a subject of media interest.

 

1.     9/11

Perhaps the most famous assertion made in the past 20 years was that Nostradamus predicted the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks. It's a story that circulated widely in late 2001, and is still widely believed. One verse in particular sent shockwaves throughout the world: 

"Two steel birds will fall from the sky on the Metropolis. The sky will burn at forty-five degrees latitude. Fire approaches the great new city. Immediately a huge, scattered flame leaps up. Within months, rivers will flow with blood. The undead will roam the earth for little time."

 

2.     The Great Fire of London

The following passage is often linked with the devastating Great Fire of London of 1666:

‘The blood of the just will commit a fault at London,

Burnt through lightning of twenty threes the six:

The ancient lady will fall from her high place,

Several of the same sect will be killed’.

 

In regards to the date, 20 times three is 60. Add six to that, and you've got 66 — or the year '66. London's infamous three-day blaze began on September 2, 1666. This prediction is one of the weaker prophecies, as it's often quite a stretch to link the historical events of the Great Fire of London with Nostradamus' words.

The fire wasn't set off by lightning, however. A hot, arid summer and a spark in the bakery of Thomas Farriner on Pudding Lane set the stage for the inferno. Peasant and middle class deaths were not recorded at the time, according to the Smithsonian Magazine, but it's likely that hundreds or even thousands of people perished in the flames.

 

3.     The French Revolution

‘From the enslaved populace, songs,

Chants and demands

While princes and lords are held captive in prisons.

These will in the future by headless idiots

Be received as divine prayers’.

 

This was a verse that related to the French Revolution. Starting with the storming of the Bastille in 1789, the French Revolution saw the overthrow of the monarchy and the establishment of a new republic. The Third Estate (enslaved populace) took control of Paris and forced their demands on royalty (princes and lords).

Ultimately, the revolution turned bloody. Nobles and commoners alike were declared traitors to the revolution and beheaded at the guillotine (headless idiots).

 

 

4.     Adolf Hitler

This was one of the most shocking of Nostradamus’ predictions. The verse as follows:

From the depths of the West of Europe,

A young child will be born of poor people,

He who by his tongue will seduce a great troop;

His fame will increase towards the realm of the East.

 

Also:

Beasts ferocious with hunger will cross the rivers,

The greater part of the battlefield will be against Hister.

Into a cage of iron will the great one be drawn,

When the child of Germany observes nothing.

 

On April 20, 1889 Adolf Hitler was born in Austria. But his family was middle class, not impoverished. Hitler did rise to power in part due to his oratory abilities (by his tongue will seduce), and did initiate World War II (a great troop) by invading Poland.

 

5.     Natural disasters

The prediction of ‘Floods and drought for forty years and the rainbow will not be seen and there will be great floods when it is seen’, could relate to the recent devastating earthquakes, floods and hurricanes that we are witnessing in the world. 

 

6.     US conflict with North Korea and Iran

 ‘Thunder and conflict - The great man will be struck down in the day by a thunderbolt. An evil deed, foretold by the bearer of a petition’ could relate to the war of words amongst the US, North Korea and Iran.

 

7.     The assassinations of John F. Kennedy and Bobby Kennedy

‘The great man will be struck down in the day by a thunderbolt,

An evil deed foretold by the bearer of a petition.

According to the prediction, another falls at night time.

Conflict at Reims, London and a pestilence in Tuscany’.

 

This verse has been most associated with the assassinations of the Kennedys. President John F. Kennedy (great man) received numerous death threats (petition) over the course of his presidency. While visiting Dallas on November 22, 1963, the president was gunned down (thunderbolt). The assassination shocked and devastated the US.

His brother Bobby Kennedy was later assassinated just after midnight on June 5, 1968 (another falls at night time).

The conflict in Reims and London and sickness in Tuscany, however, doesn't fit in with the assassination of the Kennedys. So this verse could go either way when talking about the actual foretelling of the Kennedy’s deaths. 

 

Conclusion

Nostradamus has been in the spotlight for many years and his predictions have been shocking yet notorious at the same time. While his words aren’t necessarily absolute, it is worthwhile noting how interesting certain predictions can be.

 

What do you think of Nostradamus’s predictions? Let us know below.

 

Now read Jamil’s previous article on Leonardo da Vinci’s 9 greatest inventions here.

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AuthorGeorge Levrier-Jones
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Education in the 19th century was very different to today. It was not as widespread, often not free, and the way of learning could be quite different. Even so, reformers started to make great changes to the system. Here, Jeff Blaylock provides an overview of education in the 19th century before telling us some interesting facts.

Horace Mann, c. 1850. Mann was a well-known education reformer in 19th century America.

Horace Mann, c. 1850. Mann was a well-known education reformer in 19th century America.

19th century education

The 19th century education system was certainly different to that of today. For starters the lessons and the way of learning was different. While subjects focused on areas such as grammar and arithmetic, which we also learn today, they had more of a focus on memorizing information. And more broadly, there were a range of education issues in Western countries – education was far from universal and it was the poorest who suffered the most from this. 

To over come the education divide, in the US education reform was championed by Horace Mann, with the aim of promoting state-sponsored public education. He was based in Massachusetts, but gained wider prominence over time in the US. He wanted to give more children a free, secular education. A key problem in providing this free education was that rural areas did not have enough schools, even though large numbers of the population lived in such areas; however, with the help of reformers such as Mann, by the end of the 19th century, there were a great many public schools. While public schools still prosper today, for students in need of additional support and ideas, finding a reliable writing research paper service can be crucial in ensuring they succeed in their academic pursuits.

Back to the 19th century, a key challenge in some parts of the country was that children had to work in factories or help with farm duties or other tasks, so schools had to be balanced with work responsibilities. Another key challenge was how to bring greater equality by ensuring that no matter which school a child went to, the education level provided met the same standards. This was of course very difficult, or impossible in the century, but a laudable aim.

Mann also believed education should not be a luxury for wealthy people, which meant that schools had to be free. Not every family had money to send their child to a private school, so this widespread, free provision of education was an essential part of reform.

Following that introduction, here follow some facts about education in the 19th century that might come as a surprise.

 

One classroom school buildings

To start, rural schools in the 19th and even part of the 20th centuries frequently had only one classroom. The reasons for this included a lack of funds to create bigger schoolhouses and the numbers of children who could attend schools in less densely populated areas - in an era before cars became ubiquitous.

 

Different grades had lessons together

One room schools led to the common circumstance that one teacher taught grades from one and up at the same time. The youngest would sit in the front and oldest in the back. But despite different grades being sat together in rural areas, at some schools, boys and girls studied apart from each other. This even included having separate school entries.

 

Time spent studying was shorter

The average student today attends school for about 180 days a year, so half of the year, and stays there about seven hours a day. In the 19th century, study was for around 50 days less, with lessons commonly starting at 9 a.m. and finishing in the afternoon, with five hours being more typical. This type of arrangement was needed because students may have had to work and couldn't balance education and work otherwise. Due to the prevalence of students working more in some schools, it of course meant that students had less time for homework and useful content.

 

Lashing did happen

We are used to seeing teachers disciplining students through physical punishment in older movies. It may seem like a cinematic exaggeration, but it did happen. Discipline was very strict. Punishments like suspension and detention existed, but poor behavior could also lead to lashing. Later when lashing became less popular or even removed from schools, physical punishment didn't stop. Teachers could still use a ruler to lash a student's palms. Other punishments included rewriting one word or phrase many times (maybe one hundred times!) to make the student understand and admit what was done wrong, and holding a heavy book for a long time. As vile as it may seem to some of us, physical punishment is still legal in many countries and even encouraged by some students’ parents.

 

Teachers lived with their students

Teachers were seen as examples and were looked up to. But a responsibility for some teachers was to actually live in the same house as their students. They were provided a room at a student's house, where they stayed for around a week. Then weekly they changed location to different students’ houses. It may seem like a punishment in today's society, but back then that kind of teacher influence may have helped students.

 

Conclusion

The education system was transformed carefully and slowly over time. We know today’s school system as it is because of the work laid by great reformers in the 19th century, and ultimately reform was successful because of the strong-mindedness of people like Horace Mann.

 

Author’s bio

Jeff Blaylock is a freelance copywriter. He is deeply invested in historical topics and lately, he has taken it upon himself to invest more time into digging deep into education history. His writings are catchy and informative - for casual readers and intellectuals alike.

 

Editor’s note: The article contains external links that are not affiliated in any way with this website. Please see the link here for more information about external links on the site.

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AuthorGeorge Levrier-Jones

Writing is the inscription or printing of symbols on a medium to communicate thoughts or ideas and to record events – and it had an interesting history in early ancient civilization. Here, Jeff Blaylock tells us some interesting facts about the history of writing.

Egyptian hieroglyphs, image available here.

Egyptian hieroglyphs, image available here.

Before written communication grew in use, there were verbal and non-verbal ways to communicate through sounds and gestures that were only beneficial in close-knit groups. Writing arose due to the need to communicate timelessly and over a long-distance. Our tribal ancestors needed to inform others, what they thought, felt, did, experienced and believed. One way this is evident is through ancient cave wall drawings made tens of thousands of years ago. They depicted epic battles of men wielding spears and shooting arrows, things people possessed, such as herds of cattle, and burial and divination rituals. The history of writing then has pictures as the first forms.

For those studying the evolution of communication, understanding these early forms of expression can be fascinating and rewarding. Indeed, when it comes to academic writing assignments on this topic, sites such as Writepaper can help to write a paper, offering assistance in articulating complex ideas effectively.

 

Writing systems

Writings systems originally used symbols to replace the cumbersome drawings of objects, sounds, and actions. A lot of factual material could then be preserved through writing and passed down undistorted, for generations. 

Pictographs – symbols that represent objects, animals, people

Phonograms – symbols that represent sounds from spoken language

Pictograms – symbols that represent actions and events

 

Cuneiform: Mesopotamia 3500-3000 BCE

Cuneiform comes from Latin cuneus, meaning wedge. It was developed by ancient Sumerians who lived in Mesopotamia (including modern-day Iraq), around 3500-3000 BCE. It was first used by temple officials and scribes to record animals and other goods that the temples owned. It was later adopted by the great civilizations of the region such as the Babylonians, Hittites, Assyrians, Elamites, and Hurrians.

The tools and methods

The writing system uses symbols to characterize objects, sounds, and actions. The writing device used is the end of a sharply cut reed and wet clay is the writing surface. Wedge-shaped marks at the edge of the reeds are pressed upon the clay to form characters. On a lump or block of wet clay, a simplified picture of the item is drawn. The clay is allowed to bake in the sun until it becomes a permanent record.

 

Hieroglyphics: Egypt 3200-3000 BCE

Hieroglyphs are characters used in a system of picture writing. They were used to represent speech sounds. Later on, the pictographs and phonographs were made up of letters which were known as "alphabetic signs". Hieroglyphics were in part influenced by the Sumerians before taking a more original path. The ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics were a syllabic language. By using phonograms, pictograms and alphabetic signs, they were mixed in art form and hence rich in presentation. 

The tools and methods

This form of writing was reserved for holy texts; hieros means ‘sacred’ and glypho means 'engrave' in Greek. The standard writing device was the fine reed pen used by the scribes, while a smooth papyrus scroll was the writing surface. The hieroglyphics were so varied and most of their useful content was widely published owing to the vibrant nature of ancient Egyptian civilization. Previously characters were carved and painted on wood, walls, tombs, and rocks. With papyrus, writing became more fluid and the documents more portable.

 

Chinese characters: China 1600 BCE

Chinese writing is composed of signs that have both syllabic and semantic value. It was initially used for sacred functions, and then it was largely applied for administrative purposes and literature. In its evolution, it never attained the alphabetic stage. All Chinese characters add up to approximately 47,043.

The tools and methods

Chinese symbols are also called ‘square forms’ or fangkuaizi. Their meaning is expressed using short strokes that go in different directions on a surface or medium. The first surfaces where the characters were inscribed were dry bones, and later Bronze, Seal scripts, clerical scripts, and Square scripts.

 

Evolution of writing

Since its inception, writing has evolved according to human needs and the level of technology available.

There are four major stages in this evolution of writing.

1.     Picture-based writing

As mentioned above, these were the very early writings that utilized limited media for presentation such as cave walls. Colorful and sometimes very detailed drawings were made. It was often artistic.

2.     Word-based writing

When early civilizations invented spoken words for objects and actions, they applied symbols to denote them and these symbols replaced actual tedious drawings. Most symbols were oversimplifications of previous drawings.

3.     Sound-based writing

This evolution took effect after advanced languages with vowels and consonants were developed. Words had distinct pronunciations which needed to be presented visually. The symbols representing words were varied across different civilizations and were not tied back to drawings or images.

4.     The alphabet: 800-750 BCE

The Greeks identified 24 characters otherwise known as letters that would form a widely accepted foundation for words. The letters would later be borrowed and assimilated into Latin and English. Today, alphabets are of course used widely.

 

Conclusion

In all the forms it has existed, writing has functioned to preserve an as accurate as possible human heritage, culture, and history in all its diversity. It has helped dissipate news to a wide audience through print media and spread knowledge and ideas in books. Without writing, scientific inventions, the advancement of technology, and modern civilization would not have been possible. 

 

Author’s Bio

Jeff Blaylock writes articles and well-researched essays on a variety of topics. He has experience in writing historical accounts of ancient civilizations. His writings are catchy and informative - for casual readers and intellectuals alike.

 

Editor’s note: The article contains external links that are not affiliated in any way with this website. Please see the link here for more information about external links on the site.

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AuthorGeorge Levrier-Jones
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Widely considered the greatest President in American history, much has been written about the man, the myth, the legend: Abraham Lincoln. From his acclaimed debates with Stephen A. Douglas, to his creation of the Emancipation Proclamation, to the Gettysburg Address, and finally his tragic death by the hands of John Wilkes Booth after the Civil War, President Lincoln will forever be an icon of US history. Even Lincoln’s childhood and early adulthood has come under scholarly examination. However, what is less spoken of is the strange but prolific wrestling career of the Great Emancipator. Brenden Woldman explains.

A painting of Abraham Lincoln reading as a boy. By Eastman Johnson, 1868.

A painting of Abraham Lincoln reading as a boy. By Eastman Johnson, 1868.

In the moderately sized city of Stillwater in Payne County, Oklahoma stands the National Wrestling Hall of Fame. Enshrined within those hallowed halls are America’s greatest wrestlers, from collegiate athletes to Olympic champions. But there is one man who was granted a spot within the Hall for his grappling tactics within the ring, and earned him an “Outstanding American” honor.[1] Though his gangly stature became a point of insult for his political rivals and contemporaries, with one man once telling Lincoln that he did not possess the “features the ladies would call handsome,” the future president as a young man was, surprisingly, built from stone.[2]  Lincoln may have been a thin, wiry young man standing at 6 feet, 4 inches and 180 lbs., but years of working manual labor as both a farmer in the Kentucky backwoods as well as a rail splitter helped forge a naturally strong specimen of a man who towered over any and all who stood beside him.[3]

 

Wrestling fame

Though he had no dreams of sporting grandeur, the future president, like many of his contemporaries who worked manual labor jobs, enjoyed physical activities like wrestling as a leisure activity. But just like in his political career Lincoln was a calculated and ambitious wrestler. Still, conversely to his political persona the young Lincoln was a confident sportsman who could be simply described as cocky. Lincoln’s confidence in his ability stemmed from his mastery of the “catch-as-catch-can” manner of wrestling, a brawling and combative style known for its bull-like aggressive rushes and hand-to-hand combat tactics to the opponent. Nevertheless, this bar fight style of wrestling still needed more than a hint of skill to pin a rival.[4] Lincoln’s rare mix of thin and wiry but broad, strong, and smart athlete made him nearly impossible to beat. His physical prowess made Bill Green, a local store owner from New Salem, Illinois, note that “[Lincoln] can outrun, outlift, outwrestle and throw day any man in Sangamon County,” after the young man beat multiple opponents in one day.[5] Moreover, Lincoln matched his reputation as an in-ring force with his loud public trash talking. After decisively defeating another opponent with a single toss in the ring, Honest Abe being as honest as he could be looked into an entire crowd and challenged any and all who dared to face him. Lincoln shouted, “I’m the big buck of this lick. If any of you want to try it, come on and whet your horns.”[6]Unsurprisingly, there were no takers.

The legend of Lincoln the wrestler continued to grow during the late 1820s and into the early 1830s. But what made Lincoln a local wrestling legend came in 1831, when the Great Emancipator was only 22 years old. Lincoln was quietly tending to the store he worked at as a clerk in New Salem when his boss Denton Offutt out of the blue challenged any of the local Clary’s Grove Boys to a good natured wrestling match with his star clerk.[7] The Clary’s Grove Boys, who were known for their rowdy, fraternity-like attitude toward frontiers life, enjoyed drinking and fighting more than anyone around.[8] After Offutt boasted that no one could beat his employee, the Clary’s Grove Boys’ “champion wrestler” Jack Armstrong took the challenge, believing, that he “had found only another subject by which [they] could display its strength and prowess.”[9] Lincoln accepted the challenge, getting up from behind his counter, and prepared to wrestle the feared Armstrong. 

Confident that he could outmatch the taller but gawky Lincoln, Armstrong felt no fear. Who could blame him? Lincoln had been, and would continue to be, judged by his physical appearance his entire life. However, soon after the match began, the Clary’s Grove Boys champion realized he had bit off more than he could chew. Lincoln from the start was able to control the match due to his enormous reach, forcing Armstrong to fight dirty as a means of desperation.[10] Annoyed by the lack of sportsmanship, Lincoln lost his temper and, according to legend, won the match by grabbing Armstrong by the neck, raising him above his head, shaking him around, and slamming him on the ground.[11] The crowd was shocked by Lincoln’s clear victory, and the rest of the Clary’s Grove Boys were angered by the result. Enraged, the Clary’s Grove Boys began to threaten Lincoln. Luckily, Armstrong bounced back up and defended the future president. Smiling, Armstrong looked at his friends and said, “Boys, Abe Lincoln is the best fellow that ever broke into this settlement. He shall be one of us.”[12]

 

A very impressive career

Lincoln gained the respect of Jack Armstrong and the rest of the Clary’s Grove Boys. As a result of his victory, the young Lincoln gained the reputation as the champion wrestler of New Salem, gladly taking on, and easily defeating, any and all opponents who came to challenge him. Amazingly, Lincoln was nearly impossible to beat. According to historians who have researched the win/loss record of Honest Abe, Lincoln has only one confirmed lose in allegedly more then 300 matches over the course of 12 years.[13] That sole lose came at the hands of Pvt. Lorenzo Dow Thompson, the St. Clair wrestling champion whom Lincoln met when he was a Captain during the Black Hawk War. Upon hearing of Thompson’s prowess at wrestling, Lincoln was certain in his own ability and “told my boys I could throw [Thompson].”[14] As confident as ever, Lincoln set up a match between himself and the private when both of their regiments had down time from fighting. Unfortunately, much like how Armstrong underestimated Lincoln, Lincoln underestimated Thompson. Though still in his physical prime, Lincoln realized rather quickly after the match began that he was wrestling “a powerful man” in Thompson, and that “the struggle [of winning] was a sever one.”[15] Shockingly, Lincoln for the first time in his career was thrown out of the ring and lost the match. When his men came to the defense of their captain claiming Thompson had cheated, Lincoln laughed and said Thompson won fairly. When asked how did he know, Lincoln simply said, “Why, gentlemen, that man could throw a grizzly bear.”[16]

 

In retrospect

There is something funny when we read or write about famous historical figures like Abraham Lincoln. For the most part, we think we know everything there is to know about a figure because we have been indoctrinated about the “greatest hits” of these figures. We all know about the stoic Lincoln who unified the Union during the Civil War, freed the slaves, and was assassinated, but we should never think we know everything about someone. Moreover, the importance of Lincoln as a wrestler transcends something more than an interesting tidbit of information about America’s greatest president. Lincoln learned about his own strength and confidence as well as humility through the sport. Writer and historian David Fleming said it best, noting that “when his wrestling skill diminished, Lincoln’s leadership qualities emerged.”[17] Without what he learned from wrestling, Abraham Lincoln would not have been the same man that became America’s sixteenth President.

 

 

Do you think Abraham Lincoln’s wresting career was important for his later political career? Let us know below.

 

You can read Brenden’s previous article on US politics: Violence in the Senate – Slavery, Honor and the Caning of Charles Sumner here.

[1] Christopher Klein, “10 Things You May Not Know About Abraham Lincoln,” History.com (A&E Television Networks, November 16, 2012), https://www.history.com/news/10-things-you-may-not-know-about-abraham-lincoln)

[2] Susan Bell, “Lincoln's Looks Never Hindered His Approach to Life or Politics,” USC News (USC, February 19, 2015), https://news.usc.edu/75846/lincolns-looks-never-hindered-his-approach-to-life-or-politics/)

[3] “The Railsplitter: Abraham Lincoln: An Extraordinary Life,” National Museum of American History (National Museum of American History, n.d.), https://americanhistory.si.edu/lincoln/railsplitter)

[4] Bob Dellinger, “Wrestling in the USA,” National Wrestling Hall of Fame (National Wrestling Hall of Fame, n.d.), https://nwhof.org/stillwater/resources-library/history/wrestling-in-the-usa/)

[5] David Fleming, “The Civil Warrior,” Sports Illustrated (Sports Illustrated, n.d.), https://vault.si.com/vault/1995/02/06/the-civil-warrior-on-the-us-frontier-young-abe-lincoln-was-a-great-wrestler-and-sportsman)

[6] Klein, “10 Things You May Not Know About Abraham Lincoln,” https://www.history.com/news/10-things-you-may-not-know-about-abraham-lincoln

[7] Dellinger, “Wrestling in the USA,” https://nwhof.org/stillwater/resources-library/history/wrestling-in-the-usa/R.J. Norton, “Abraham Lincoln's Wrestling Match,” Abraham Lincoln Research Site (Abraham Lincoln Research Site, n.d.), https://rogerjnorton.com/Lincoln48.html)

[8] Norton, “Abraham Lincoln’s Wrestling Match,” https://rogerjnorton.com/Lincoln48.html

[9] Dan Evon, “Is Abraham Lincoln in the Wrestling Hall of Fame?,” Snopes.com (Snopes.com, n.d.), https://www.snopes.com/fact-check/lincoln-wrestling-hall-of-fame/

[10] Dellinger, “Wrestling in the USA,” https://nwhof.org/stillwater/resources-library/history/wrestling-in-the-usa/

[11] Dellinger, “Wrestling in the USA,” https://nwhof.org/stillwater/resources-library/history/wrestling-in-the-usa/, Norton, “Abraham Lincoln’s Wrestling Match,” https://rogerjnorton.com/Lincoln48.html

[12] Norton, “Abraham Lincoln’s Wrestling Match,” https://rogerjnorton.com/Lincoln48.html

[13] Bryan Armen Graham, “Abraham Lincoln Was A Skilled Wrestler And World-Class Trash Talker,” Sports Illustrated (Sports Illustrated, February 12, 2013), https://www.si.com/extra-mustard/2013/02/12/abraham-lincoln-was-a-skilled-wrestler-and-world-class-trash-talker)

[14] Evon, “Is Abraham Lincoln in the Wrestling Hall of Fame?,”https://www.snopes.com/fact-check/lincoln-wrestling-hall-of-fame/

[15] Ibid.,

[16] Ibid.,

[17] Graham, “Abraham Lincoln Was A Skilled Wrestler and World-Class Trash Talker,” https://www.si.com/extra-mustard/2013/02/12/abraham-lincoln-was-a-skilled-wrestler-and-world-class-trash-talker

Education has taken on many forms and there have been great periods of educational development over the centuries. The 17th century, however, was a polarizing era in education and, to a large extent, caused a great rift between the ‘haves’ and the ‘have nots’.

Although there were some great advances in the time, there were also some low points. Here, Connie Elser explains some facts about education in the 17th century.

Glasgow University, Scotland in the 1650s. Scotland had an impressive education record in the 17th and 18th centuries.

Glasgow University, Scotland in the 1650s. Scotland had an impressive education record in the 17th and 18th centuries.

The rich were separated by education

If you had the money for an education, then you were part of the in-crowd; however, very often the people who had money were born into it. There weren’t many self-made rich around, which limited the number of people who had access to quality education.

The majority of people were illiterate and, as a result, could not go to university either. Although there was a great educational divide in Europe, the 17th century helped to give spark to some more liberal education in the 18th century. In most cases, the universities had religious ties or involvement and the church was in control of what was taught and what not. 

 

It was the forerunner to the age of enlightenment

Due to the constraints in education, some people started to expand their minds and become more innovative. They were not very pleased that there was such a divide between those who had an education and those who did not. 

This is one of the reasons why in Europe, new ideas were starting to crop up. Innovation in education was one of the areas that received particular attention. The non-conformist, anti-establishment intellectuals are a testimony to the change in Europe and that Europe was starting to break free from medieval thinking.

Gradually, common people gained more access to education because of the many innovative ideas that abounded at that time. As such, although economic segregation started to weaken little by little, there were countries that were more egalitarian than others.

 

Sweden was the place to be for the commoner

Although the majority of Europe was segregated in terms of education, Sweden took a different route. It was one of the first countries to educate the masses. By royal decree, all the people were expected to be literate by the 1680s.

Although the reason this was put in place was so that everybody was able to read the scriptures, it had a knock-on effect. Once you could read, there was no law that stated that you could only read the Holy Scriptures. 

People started to read more widely and also gained knowledge that was previously not widely available. Commoners started learning about different subject matters that unlocked possibilities for them and the generations that succeeded them.

 

There was often artisan schooling for those less fortunate

In the rest of Europe, there was still some education for the masses. Education just had a different form, depending on which side of the divide you found yourself on. Whereas the rich were able to formally educate their children, the common folk more often passed down their trade. 

Artisan training was common and fathers passed their skills down to their sons and mothers passed their skills down to their daughters. There were also some cheaper options available for the commoner in the form of dame schools, charity schools and some church or independent schools that catered for the poor.

 

The Scots were looking out for those less fortunate

Another group who were trying to do something for common folk were the Scottish. The church was supportive and by the late 16th century, it was declared by the Presbyterian Church that every parish in Scotland should have a school (although this proved impossible at the time).

This meant that the Scots had more parish elementary schools than the English and these schools were not just aimed at the rich and established. They were there for everyone. This was very evident as literacy rates shows us that the Scots had high literacy rates in the 18th century in the 18th century.  

That made a difference to a whole generation because more people managed to read, making it easier for them to engage with other educational and entertainment material.

 

Conclusion

Much can be said about education in the 17th century, but the one thing that stands out is that while the rich/poor divide remained, it started to show the early inklings of mass education. People broke free of the norm that education was only available for the rich – and, out of desperation, innovation and the future of education was born.

 

 

Editor’s note: The article contains external links that are not affiliated in any way with this website. Please see the link here for more information about external links on the site.

Posted
AuthorGeorge Levrier-Jones

Serge Obolensky (1890-1978) may not be somebody you have heard of; however he led a fascinating life. From World War I to the Russian Civil War, from London to New York, from marrying the daughter of one of the richest Americans to capturing Sardinia in World War Two - and playing a key role in the US hotel industry. Dmitriy Nikolayev explains.

Serge Obolensky, Source: Available here.

Serge Obolensky, Source: Available here.

There have been some amazing people in the history of Russian immigration to the USA. The life of the Russian aristocrat, Prince Sergei (Serge) Obolensky, was full of rises and falls, deprivations, great financial success, and military exploits. During the First World War he was awarded the highest medals for personal courage; later, the Bolsheviks hunted him. In America he became one of the founders of the U.S. Special Forces, a lieutenant colonel of the Office of Strategic Services, and a U.S. Army paratrooper at the age of 53. Obolensky successfully completed the task of peacefully seizing Sardinia and transferring it to American forces. He became a successful businessman, socialite and publicist, vice chairman of the board of directors of the Hilton Hotels Corporation. Obolensky was married several times, including the daughter of the Russian emperor Alexander II and the daughter of one of the richest people in the USA, John Jacob Astor IV, who died in the sinking of RMS Titanic.

The revolution of 1917 in Russia turned out to be a disaster for the country. Entire groups of society (for example, the nobility and the clergy) were proclaimed ideologically alien to the new Bolshevik state. There was no place for them in the new country. Several million people were forced to emigrate from Soviet Russia. Many died in the Russian Civil War (1917-22), between the ‘red’ communists and the opposition ‘whites’. Those few who remained were repressed or had to hide their origin. Life scattered the ‘white’ Russian immigration across different countries and continents. Some tried to find a new life in Europe, some fled to China, and some moved to the United States.

Sergei Obolensky was the oldest son of Prince Platon Obolensky-Neledinsky-Meletsky (1850-1913) and Maria Naryshkina (1861-1929). Thereby, both of his parents were the representatives of noble families of the highest rank. In 1897 his parents divorced. From the age of seven, the prince was brought up by his father. In 1912, Obolensky went to study in Oxford, England. There he got acquainted with representatives of the English aristocracy, including the Prince of Wales (the future king of England, Edward VIII). At the beginning of World War I, Obolensky returned to Russia and joined the army as an officer in the Cavalier Guard regiment. He was awarded three St. George’s crosses, which was the highest medal for bravery in Tsarist Russia.

During one holiday Sergei Obolensky met Ekaterina Yuryevskaya, the daughter of Alexander II in his morganatic marriage. Despite the significant difference in age for the time (she was 12 years older than the Prince), they got married in 1916. Then the revolution erupted. First Obolensky hid from the Bolsheviks in the Crimea, using a fake passport, then the couple moved to Moscow. He found a job for a textile factory in Moscow, and his wife began working as a schoolteacher. Their property in Russia was confiscated, and having such noble titles became simply dangerous.

Fleeing from the communist regime, the Obolensky couple moved to Europe. After wandering around several countries they settled in London. The Prince still had money in English banks. His former university connections helped as well. Even so, his marriage with Catherine broke up and they got divorced. 

 

Immigration from Russia

In London, Obolensky found a job in sales of agricultural machinery. He started to participate in social life and attend balls and parties of the English nobility. At one of the balls he met Alice Muriel Astor. Alice's father, John Jacob Astor IV, was one of the richest people in the United States, the great-grandson of the first American millionaire who was among the passengers of the Titanic in 1912. The last time he was seen, he was calmly smoking a cigar on a sinking liner. Obolensky proposed and they soon got married and settled in New York.

The Russian aristocrat joined the circle of confidants of the head of the family business of Vincent Astor and became the manager of its hotels and restaurants. Alice gave birth to their two children, son Ivan and daughter Sylvia. Though they divorced in 1932, Serge maintained friendly relations with both his ex-wife and her brother Vincent. Obolensky ran Astor's fashionable St. Regis Sheraton hotel on Fifth Avenue.

Vincent successfully navigated the financial crisis of 1929 and became an advisor to President F.D. Roosevelt and sometimes provided Roosevelt with his yacht "Nurmahal". Along with Vincent’s financial success, Obolensky’s prosperity grew as well. The Prince hosted lavish parties. George Gershwin presented the fragments of his still unfinished opera “Porgy and Bess” at one of his birthdays. 

Serge also helped Russian emigrants who were in a difficult financial situation in America, while his interests were not limited to the hotel business. Before the Second World War, he was successfully involved in perfumery with his immigrant friend Aleksandre Tarsaidze.

 

During World War II

When the war broke out, Obolensky decided to join the army again. But this time it was the US Army. His cavalry past was not in demand, but he thought that his experience of hiding from the Bolsheviks could be useful in the Special Forces. At first, he was refused. Nevertheless, Obolensky continued his training, passed the exams to be an officer, became a lieutenant, and soon received the rank of captain. He did it in his free time when working at the hotel.

Bill Donovan, the man who was busy organizing American commando forces, was living in the same hotel at that moment. He just formed the OSS - the Office of Strategic Services, which later became the Central Intelligence Agency of the United States. After talking with Donovan, the Russian Prince became part of the OSS. Obviously, Obolensky had an extraordinary talent for convincing people, finding a common language with different individuals. He could use his gift both in business and in military service.

First, he got several months of special training. The commanders developed not only the technical side, but also the tactics of guerrilla warfare. For this, Obolensky translated a manual for Soviet partisans into English, which formed the basis for the preparation of sabotage groups. After that, Serge took part in training in various branches of the army, from the Marine Corps to the tank forces. At the age of 53, Obolensky made his first parachute jump.

In September 1943, shortly after the overthrow of Mussolini, Obolensky, having landed in Sardinia with three other commandos, came into contact with General Basso, who commanded the Italian forces there, and, passing him special messages from Eisenhower, the Italian king and Marshal Badoglio, persuaded him to join the American forces. The capture of Sardinia was regarded as one of the most impressive achievements of the OSS at that time. Later he received the order to prevent the destruction of the power plant by Germans during their retreat. This task was also completed successfully.

 

The life of Serge Obolensky after the war

After the war Obolensky continued to work in his hotel business. He went to work for the fast-growing hotel empire of Conrad Hilton. And soon he became a vice president of the Hilton Corporation. In 1949, the Russian aristocrat also started his own public relations firm in New York City, Serge Obolensky Associates, Inc.

Serge continued to host society parties too. There are some photos of him with American celebrities; for example, on one of them he is dancing with Marilyn Monroe. At "white balls", which he sometimes arranged, he danced on the table the so-called "Russian dance with daggers" - even when he became much older. In 1971, Sergei Obolensky married for the third time to Marilyn Fraser Wall. He was 81 years old that year, his wife was 42. During the last years of his life, they lived in Gross Point, a rich suburb of Detroit. Sergei Obolensky died in 1978, at the age of 88. He worked in the hotel business until the last days of his life.

 

What do you think of the life of Sergei Obolensky? Let us know below.

CoVID-19 is leading to great change in how societies and economies operate the world over; however the Great Flu (or Spanish Flu) of 1918 caused devastation some 100 years ago. Here, Daniel L. Smith considers what happened in 1918 and in retrospect what it could mean for CoVID-19 now.

Daniel’s new book on mid-19thcentury northern California is now available. Find our more here: Amazon USAmazon UK

U.S. Army Camp Hospital No. 45, Aix-Les-Bains, France, Influenza Ward No. 1, in 1918. Influenza pandemic ward during World War I.

U.S. Army Camp Hospital No. 45, Aix-Les-Bains, France, Influenza Ward No. 1, in 1918. Influenza pandemic ward during World War I.

So here we are. In a great modern-day national quarantined lock-down. A new procedure for most people in America and the West. Has anyone ever heard of the Great Flu  - or Spanish Flu - of 1918? The Great Influenza of 1918 might arguably resemble the CoVID-19 flu that we are seeing today, at least to some degree. For instance, we notice that Iran is dealing with a large viral outbreak with over 1,000 casualties that they are allowing to be officially reported inside of their borders.[1] Of course they are also hyping up the situation by calling for “over one-million deaths” from this unfriendly influenza.[2] During the Great Influenza the global economic and social effects were catastrophic for everybody at that time, not just Asia and the Middle East.

The U.S. Center for Disease Control and Prevention wrote: “The 1918 influenza pandemic was the most severe pandemic in recent history. It was caused by an H1N1 virus with genes of avian origin. Although there is not a universal consensus regarding where the virus originated, it spread worldwide during 1918-1919.  In the United States, it was first identified in military personnel in spring 1918.

“It is estimated that about 500 million people or one-third of the world’s population became infected with this virus. The number of deaths was estimated to be at least 50 million worldwide, with about 675,000 occurring in the United States. Mortality was high in people younger than 5 years old, 20-40 years old, and 65 years and older. The high mortality in healthy people, including those in the 20-40 year age group, was a unique feature of this pandemic.

“While the 1918 H1N1 virus has been synthesized and evaluated, the properties that made it so devastating are not well understood. With no vaccine to protect against influenza infection and no antibiotics to treat secondary bacterial infections that can be associated with influenza infections, control efforts worldwide were limited to non-pharmaceutical interventions such as isolation, quarantine, good personal hygiene, use of disinfectants, and limitations of public gatherings, which were applied unevenly.”[4]

After doing some research, I found out that Iran (Persia) seemed to suffer the most casualties from the Great Influenza of 1918. A telegram from the Minister in Persia (Caldwell) to the US Secretary of State read: “American Relief Commission en route to Persia (Iran), headed by Doctor Judson, are scattered on the Pacific at Seattle, Bombay, Kermanshah, and Harakiri. They have immense supplies of much-needed medicine, supply of which is almost entirely exhausted in Persia. Epidemic of influenza prevails and quinine retails at $125 a pound.”[5]

 

In Retrospect

In this transcript, the American Relief Commission was charged with supplying Iran specifically with viral medication for the pandemic’s relief efforts. The point that is being made here, is that these viral and bacterial outbreaks do happen and these things will continue to happen. There will be war, there will be sickness, there will be pestilence and famine.[6] People will be injured, and people will lose their lives. It is the way of humanity, as we can see today when we look into our more recent history. It is clear that people know this, as panic and fear have driven people nationwide to hoard supplies at grocery and department stores.[7] Shelves are empty. Supply simply cannot keep up with demand.

Was the 1918 Influenza epidemic bad? Sure it was. It's obvious by the way the United States, Britain, and Germany have been unleashing their national “war-time powers” for the (so far milder) CoVID-19 today, powers not seen since WWI and WWII.[8]  And there is good reason to be aware of the history behind this whole “Pandemic” feature of post-Modern America.[9] With the United Nations and World Health Organization (WHO) trying to unite countries across the globe to fight CoVID-19 in unity and parallel coordination, it should make you ponder the political freedoms that everybody has taken for granted here. I feel as of right now our American liberty is being thrown under the bus in some sense. Some might say all for an illusion of a false sense of security.[10] A certain security that absolutely no government can offer you, or your family.

 

An over-reaction?

Statistical numbers on fatalities due to this global pandemic just aren’t matching up with the reality of this fully overblown response and lock-down of millions upon millions of people across the globe. Here’s the breakdown for infections: “COVID-19: Approximately 247,400 cases worldwide; 14,250 cases in the U.S. (as of Mar. 20, 2020). Regular Flu: Estimated 1 billion cases worldwide; 9.3 million to 45 million cases in the U.S. per year. And here’s the breakdown for Deaths: COVID-19: Approximately 10,067 deaths reported worldwide; 205 deaths in the U.S., (as of Mar. 20, 2020). And for the regular Flu: 291,000 to 646,000 deaths worldwide; 12,000 to 61,000 deaths in the U.S. per year.”[11]

As we all sit and wait out what has been dubbed the newest pandemic to affect humanity, we should take time to appreciate everything that we have in our own lives. This means educating ourselves on issues that we do not understand. This also means we should also take this time to reflect on our own household and community. As we endure our newest and most politically uncharted direction for some time, we should also ponder taking on an old-time responsibility and obligation to our American solidarity, heritage, and traditional acts of participation in community affairs. We have hit a crossroads in humanity’s timeline. From here on out, regardless of your social class and occupation, we are all prisoners of the political and social cycle that we as individuals choose (and don’t choose) to be part of.

 

Daniel was due to give a talk about his book on mid-19thcentury northern California later this year. It’s now been canceled; however, you can keep up-to-date on when it is rearranged for here.

Finally, Daniel Smith writes at complexamerica.org.

Resources

[1] "Iran Coronavirus Death Toll Passes 600, Syria Shuts Schools." Worthy Christian News. Last modified March 14, 2020. https://www.worthynews.com/47764-iran-coronavirus-death-toll-passes-600-syria-shuts-schools. 

[2] "Coronavirus Ravages Middle East As Iran Warns of 'Millions' of Deaths." Worthy Christian News. Last modified March 17, 2020. https://www.worthynews.com/47862-coronavirus-ravages-middle-east-as-iran-warns-of-millions-of-deaths.

[3] "The Minister in Persia (Caldwell) to the Secretary of State. Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States, 1918, Supplement 2, The World War." Office of the Historian. Last modified October 2, 1918. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1918Supp02/d709.

[4] "History of 1918 Flu Pandemic." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Last modified January 22, 2019. https://www.cdc.gov/flu/pandemic-resources/1918-commemoration/1918-pandemic-history.htm.

[5] Ibid., Office of the Historian.

[6] "African Locust Swarm Headed for Middle East." Worthy Christian News. Last modified March 17, 2020. https://www.worthynews.com/47840-african-locust-swarm-headed-for-middle-east.

[7] Solé, Elise. "Hoarding Toilet Paper Amid the Coronavirus: Why Are People Doing It?" Yahoo. Last modified March 19, 2020. https://www.yahoo.com/lifestyle/hoarding-toilet-paper-amid-the-coronavirus-why-are-people-doing-it-203046290.html.

[8] Rawlinson, Kevin. "'This Enemy Can Be Deadly': Boris Johnson Invokes Wartime Language." The Guardian. Last modified March 18, 2020. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/mar/17/enemy-deadly-boris-johnson-invokes-wartime-language-coronavirus.

[9] "Trump Says He Will Invoke Wartime Act to Fight 'enemy' Coronavirus." U.S. Last modified March 19, 2020. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-usa-trump-act/trump-says-he-will-invoke-wartime-act-to-fight-enemy-coronavirus-idUSKBN2152XL?feedType=RSS&feedName=domesticNews.

[10] "COVID-19: Is A Psyop – Cabal Wants To Turn The World Into A Militarized Police State." Investment Watch – Spreading the Truth. Empowering the People. Last modified February 19, 2020. https://www.investmentwatchblog.com/covid-19-is-a-psyop-cabal-wants-to-turn-the-world-into-a-militiarized-police-state/.

[11] Dr. Maragakis, Lisa L. "Coronavirus Disease 2019 Vs. the Flu." Johns Hopkins Medicine, Based in Baltimore, Maryland. Accessed March 20, 2020. https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/coronavirus/coronavirus-disease-2019-vs-the-flu

Posted
AuthorGeorge Levrier-Jones

When thinking about the Constitution of the United States, names like James Madison usually come to mind. But a friend of the great "architect of the Constitution," John Leland, a Baptist minister, had much to do with Madison's giant accomplishments. In fact, without Mr. Leland's influence the establishment clause in the First Amendment may not exist as we know it. In this series of articles we explore the critical but little-known role played by the Baptists in helping to secure America’s cherished religious freedoms. In the third article we will see how the view of Baptists changed from a disease to be eradicated to being tolerated, amid the creation of the Rhode Island Royal Charter.

Victor Gamma explains. You can read part 1 on the persecution suffered by Baptists in 17thcentury America here, and part 2 on Roger Williams and religious freedom here.

A possible painting of John Clarke, an influential leader during the early days of the Baptist Church in America. Painting by Guilliam de Ville and in the Redwood Library in Newport, Rhode Island. Available here.

A possible painting of John Clarke, an influential leader during the early days of the Baptist Church in America. Painting by Guilliam de Ville and in the Redwood Library in Newport, Rhode Island. Available here.

While Roger Williams was busy upsetting tender Puritan sensibilities, other colonial firebrands were stoking the fires of dissent. John Clarke emerged as an influential leader, too, during the early days of the Baptist Church in America. Clarke arrived in Boston from England in 1637 as a minister and practicing physician. He soon gravitated to Rhode Island, that budding haven of freedom, where he worked with Roger Williams and helped found Newport. Like his more famous co-religionist, Dr. Clarke was a religious refugee from Massachusetts Bay Colony. By 1644 the Newport congregation had become another center of Baptist activity under Clarke’s leadership. Meanwhile, Massachusetts had, in the same year, outlawed Baptists. The law, reflecting the conflict with Williams and others, reiterated the Puritan concern over the alleged Baptist threat to established order:

“Foreasmuch as experience hath plentifully and often proved, that since the first rising of the Anabaptist, about one hundred years since, they have been the incendiaries of the commonwealths, and the infectors of persons main matters of religion, and the troublers of churches in all places where they have been . .  . and so must necessarily bring guilt upon us, infection and trouble to the churches, and hazard to the whole commonwealth.”

 

Soon after the Witter incident (discussed in the first article in this series here), Clark left for England along with Roger Williams with the goal of securing a charter for Rhode Island. Immediately after arriving in England, Clark was moved to write a treatise on the subject of religious liberty, Ill Newes from New-England, or, A Narrative of New–England’s Persecution, Whereas Is Declared that While Old England is Becoming New, New–England Is Become Old. In the treatise, Clarke presented his beliefs of governmental non-interference in matters of religion. Clarke's purpose was to alert government leaders to the facts regarding Puritan persecution of other Christians, to defend liberty of conscience, and to propose methods of advancing the Gospel. The earnest doctor hoped to stir up the Puritan government, whom, he hoped, would be outraged to hear about the terrible abused degrading the English outpost across the Atlantic. Specifically, Clark wanted them to take action to uphold liberty of conscience and protect his hard-pressed fellow Baptists. Clarke felt free to exaggerate if it would serve his purpose, "Thereupon they (the Puritan government of New England) have been too deeply engaged in the shedding of much innocent blood in this Land," asserted Clarke. He attempted to convince Parliamentary leaders that the Puritans of Massachusetts were exercising a high-handed government contrary to Biblical principles and odious to that which Parliament itself had fought for when opposing the oppressive rule of the King and his Bishops. To prove his authenticity Clarke also recounted his own persecution at the hands of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. He began by stating that his trial at the hands of the Massachusetts authorities involved none of the elements of fairness so beloved of Englishmen. Specifically, Clarke related that his trial lacked accusers, witnesses, jury, 'law of God, or man." Instead, after the charge was brought the sentence followed, along with a scolding from the Governor, John Endicot. Here Clarke was accused of being an Anabaptist and of re-baptizing. Clarke denied the charge of being an Anabaptist or of re-baptizing and pointed out that such an accusation could not be proven. When the Governor persisted in his accusations, Dr. Clarke stated his beliefs, or in his parlance, testified, regarding true baptism and liberty of conscience. Clarke's withering indictment of the 'The Antichristian Rule in New England' proved to be effective. This "drum major of freedom" so alarmed Massachusetts’ authorities that they responded with a counterblast of their own entitled The Civil Magistrates Power in Matters of Religion Modestly Debated, published in 1653. Despite their rebuttal, Clarke's expose led to his next, and greatest, accomplishment, the Rhode Island Royal Charter.

 

The Rhode Island Royal Charter

The struggle to acquire a charter kept Clarke in England for next twelve years. It was vital that Rhode Island had its interests defended because all the other colonies were hostile towards the young colony. They were fortunate to have a determined agent to act as their advocate in England. After a lengthy process, including ten letters and petitions to the king in one year alone, Charles II, affixed his seal to the document on July 8, 1663. The charter was quite radical for its time. Among its provisions, the one most dear to Clarke touched on religious liberty:

“Our royal will and pleasure is that no person within the said colony, at any time hereafter, shall be any wise molested, punished, disquieted, or called in question, for any difference in opinion in matters of religion ..."

 

This charter remained the basis of Rhode Island's government until 1842. The following words, written by Clarke himself in all capitals to press his case, are carved into the frieze of the Rhode Island State House: ‘TO HOLD FORTH A LIVELY EXPERIMENT THAT A MOST FLOURISHING CIVILL STATE MAY STAND ... AND BEST BE MAINTAYNED ... WITH A FULL LIBERTIE IN RELIGIOUS CONCERNMENTS’.With this charter, the Baptists had a safe haven in the New World. The struggle for liberty in the other colonies, however, was just beginning.

 

Now, read part 4 here. It is the final part in the series - How Baptists Ensured Religious Freedom.

What do you think of the article? Let us know below.

References

Clarke, John. Ill Newes from New-England, or, A Narrative of New–England’s Persecution, Whereas Is Declared that While Old England is Becoming New, New–England Is Become Old. London: Henry Hills, 1652.

Backus, Isaac. History of New England With Particular Reference to the Denomination of Christians called Baptists. Ulan Press, 2012.

Brackney, William H. editor. Baptist Life and Thought: a Source Book. Valley Forge PA: Judson Press, 1998.

Green, Samuel. The Book of the General Laws and Libertyes Concerning the Inhabitants of the Massachusetts.Cambridge:1648.

James, Charles. A Documentary History of the Struggle for Religious Liberty in Virginia.ForthWorth TX: RDMc Publishing, 1900.

Leonard, Bill J. Baptist Ways: A History.Valley Forge PA: Judson Press, 2001.

Mather, Cotton. MagnaliaChristi Americana: or The Ecclesiastical History of New England. London, Thomas Parkhurst, 1702.

Shurden, Walter B. (2008). Turning Points in Baptist History. Mercer University Press.

Ward, Nathaniel. The Simple Cobbler of Aggawam in America, 1647, www.publicbookshelf.org.

The TV series Chernobyl has been the subject of acclaim by many people. Here, Shannon Bent returns and gives us her generally positive take on the series. However, she also considers the inaccuracies in the show and some of the negative impacts, including the vandalization of the Chernobyl area.

This follows Shannon’s articles on Berlin’s Checkpoint Charlie (here) and Topography of Terror (here), the UK’s Hack Green Secret Nuclear Bunker (here), and the definition of a museum (here).

A 2013 photo of a ferris wheel in Pripyat, the town in which the Chernobyl power plant was. Source: Tiia Monto, available here.

A 2013 photo of a ferris wheel in Pripyat, the town in which the Chernobyl power plant was. Source: Tiia Monto, available here.

We all love a good war film, or period drama TV show. History carries its own drama and intrigue that we can capitalize on and use for entertainment value. And yes, it is okay to say that you are interested in a movie about the darkest moments for the human race; arguably it is part of the human condition to have interest in ‘horrible’ subjects. And then big film companies have a fantastic ability to take these already amazing, impressive, unbelievable historical subjects and add even more drama, explosions and death to it. Sometimes to the point of impertinence. 

As a historian, historical accuracy is the most important thing in not only my work, but in my own time when enjoying TV, books and films. I enjoy action, drama, suspense. But all this cannot be at the expense of historical accuracy. There’s just no need for it! There are so many war films that take drama and action over the heroic stories of those that actually fought and it is a huge shame. 

 

Moving away from war

I’m going to move away from war for a moment. I know, shock. In my defense, when you have a degree in something, it tends to occupy your mind more than other subjects. But the first piece of popular culture (using a term harping back to my Sociology class) I want to speak about is the recent HBO series ‘Chernobyl’. I don’t wish to use the word ‘masterpiece’ more than once in this series of articles so let’s get it out of the way first off. This series was a masterpiece. I have never been more gripped, more hooked, more moved, by a piece of cinematography than I was by this mini-series. I was skeptical at first. While the writers, producers and cast list was enough to make anyone impressed, it was the topic that concerned me. We have a tendency to wait a few decades before we begin to encompass historical events like this into popular culture. That, or we begin fairly soon after the event so that it is fresh in everyone’s mind and people that were apart of it can be involved if they wish. The Chernobyl disaster happened in 1986, and not only that but during the most secretive period in the world’s history, the Cold War. (Okay, I lied. I said there was no war in this one. There is. Sorry.) This makes accurately commenting on the subject tricky to say the least. For a start, of course 1986 is within many people’s lifetimes. However, to be crude and obvious about it, not many people that were there have survived to be able to tell their story today. Furthermore, anything that happened within the Soviet Union was kept under tight lock and key, and even with the downfall of the regime in 1991 that supposedly made archives and records accessible to governments, journalists and historians, knowledge on everything that occurred is sketchy at best. Let alone knowledge on a subject as damming as this. 

So, I was skeptical. I was worried if it was going to be handled sympathetically, accurately, and without too much political correctness when it came to ‘pointing the finger’ so to speak. There were many things that could have gone horribly wrong. But we were all in for a positive shock.

 

The Bridge of Death

The series begins a mere few hours before the disaster occurs yet does a fantastic job at setting the scene in communist Ukraine. It presents Pripyat as the purpose-built town it was intended to be – all existing purely to house workers for the power plant. Filmed in previously communist Lithuania, the architecture is perfectly Soviet. The reactor room was reconstructed on the set with minute accuracy, but we have photos to help us with that. This means costumes etc. can be fairly accurate too. These things should be correct; however, like I say, photos and, lets be honest, logic, should lead to these things being accurate. It’s the smaller matters that may be an issue. 

I’ve just spent the last half an hour annoying my parents who are trying to read the newspaper by reading out lines from various articles I have found online about the accuracy of this series. There seemed to be a consistent item that was cited in these articles – ‘The Bridge of Death’. In the first episode, it is shown that many residents of the town went to stand on a bridge that directly faced the power plant to watch the fire, and this eerie blue glow that sat above it. The episode also depicts a type of ‘ash rain’ falling onto the skin of the onlookers, adults and children alike, presumably radioactive ash. At the end of the episode, in a manner that a lot of historical dramas like to adopt, the producers add in comments about what has been more accurate or extra information about scenes shown before. The comments at the end of this episode claim ‘of the people who watched from the railway bridge, it has been reported that none survived. It is now known as ‘The Bridge of Death’’. This has been highly disputed by just about everyone. A BBC article containing the comments from Mr Breus, an engineer at the power plant and eyewitness of the disaster just hours after it happened, says that many people would have slept through the night and would have only been aware of the explosion the following morning. I am inclined to agree. Depending on how loud the explosion was (and I know that sounds potentially stupid, it is an explosion. It’ll be damn loud. But what I mean is, taking into account proximity to the town, surrounding terrain etc., it may not have been loud enough to wake some people) many people may have continued to sleep unaware. The series practically implies that half the town took a picnic up to the bridge to go and watch. Also, I do not wish to insult the intelligence of the people of Pripyat by implying that an explosion or fire at a nuclear power plant is something to go and watch like one would a firework display. It is more likely that even if residents were aware, most would have done the smart thing of staying in their homes until morning and awaiting official information.

Google this concept and you will find forum after forum, website after website, thread after thread, about how there is no evidence of this being true. Keep in mind this is one of the most highly researched events in history, and I don’t just mean by historians. Every sector of science has taken this one under its wing; environmental scientists, human scientists, biologists, chemists, physicists, sociologists, anthropologists. You name it, they have studied it. Not to mention historians, journalists and writers collecting eyewitness accounts and numerous stories from just about every element of society in Pripyat. If there was a notable amount of people collecting on a bridge to watch the biggest nuclear disaster in history, someone would have noticed the pattern and commented on it. Perhaps this is a case of drama for drama’s sake. People are pretty annoyed about this point. It’s a fairly large misleading point, and furthermore to claim that everyone depicted died is even more misleading.

 

Chernobyl Tourism

There are various other historical inaccuracies that people have pointed out, and a few accounts of drama for drama’s sake. Overall though, the consensus is that the series was done sympathetically, mostly accurately and with fantastic self-awareness of the enormity of what they were commenting on. Even I, who believe that historical inaccuracy is the worst thing people could grace TV and cinema with, can overlook these elements in favor of overall understanding better the hell that these people went through in dealing with this disaster. But more to the point, very much more to the point than my last 1,000 words have been, far worse and sinister things have come out of this series than just a few historical inaccuracies or dramatization of the facts.

I will forever maintain that the human race is its own greatest vice. We are an incredible species; we develop and research and discover. We advance at the speed of light to make our lives better. Yet we are still infinitely stupid. Within a month of the series airing on its various platforms, visitors to the exclusion zone rocketed in numbers. I guess to be expected, to an extent. If you draw attention to any historical site or event in popular culture, you are, by definition, making it popular. This is very much the point of this series; making history popular and how we react to it. I will also admit my guilt in jumping onto this bandwagon. Many times I have seen a site on TV or read about it in a book or article and insisted on going to see visit it. After all, standing in the place in which history has occurred brings it to life, as I have said before. However, I must say, not many of these places I have been eager to visit contain the most radioactive areas of land on the planet. I considered it, once, when I was looking for interesting trip destinations. While it was cheap to visit (it has considerably risen in price now as I’m sure you can imagine), it was a fleeting consideration and it was short-lived. 

However, unfortunately, many people aren’t flocking to the site to pay their respect to history, to the people that lost their lives because of the tragedy. No, instead they are going there to take selfies and graffiti the buildings. And it is not just the visitors that are capitalizing on ‘dark tourism’. Online and at the site there are gift shops selling souvenirs such as t-shirts with the radioactive symbols on, ‘radioactive glow’ mugs and key rings, fridge magnets and hats. But perhaps more disturbingly than all of this, the official souvenir vendors at the checkpoint entering the exclusion zone are selling bottled ‘radioactive air’ and ‘Chernobyl ice cream’, supposedly made from the contaminated milk of local cows. The amount of times I have used inverted commas in this article to do with this topic is disturbing to me. These elements of gifts and souvenirs are fairly alarming when you consider that they are supposed to be a thing which would give the user radiation poisoning. Apart from being totally stupid, it is the most appalling, unethical, amoral thing I have ever read in my life. 

Reading up on what these tours off, how these tour companies bring bus after bus of people in, making their guests spend longer at these souvenir stands than at the actual site, and then allow these visitors to pick things up, climb into buildings, vandalize the area and litter the now reclaimed wildlife-filled forest is utterly disgusting. Both parties are to blame here. Yes, the people should know better; have some basic humility. But these tour companies shouldn’t be allowing such vile behavior in such a dangerous place. Ultimately, the bottom line is that while living history is amazing, and the concept of standing in the very place that history happened is very important to many including me, this should not be happening. Who is to blame is to be debated, of course, and is hotly contested. To me, everyone is. Everyone from the tour companies to the people behaving badly on the tours are all throwing their hat into this ring of destruction and in some manner competing to see who is worse.

 

The importance of the media in popularizing history

The question is, seeing as this has all stemmed from the HBO series as the popularity of the site rose along with the viewing figures of the show, how much is the entertainment industry to blame? And I’m referring to more general concepts too, not just Chernobyl; World War battlefield sites and movies, areas of natural beauty that appear in the media, these are all places that have been affected by the emergence of media popularity through TV and film. 

Ultimately, I feel the question is should we have to miss out on educational and entertainment opportunities of TV and movies so that idiots don’t know where to go to defile and destroy an area of great importance to humanity.?

This seems harsh maybe. But if you’ve read anything else I’ve written you may know by now I pull no punches in these articles. I’m fed up with people thinking that their stupid actions should take priority over the preservation of a place in which people lost their lives to try and save others. Not many things can make my blood boil like this topic does. I was beside myself with anger when I began reading the articles I have mentioned and quoted in this piece. I do not believe we should stop creating fantastic pieces such as the series Chernobyl just in case someone decides that they want to graffiti a radioactive building or somebody decides to capitalize on a very real deadly concept of radioactive material and uses it to sell some kind of ‘quirky’ and ‘individual’ gift. However, I feel ultimately this is the price we pay if we wish to encompass sites such as Chernobyl into popular culture. It doesn’t matter how good your intentions are, how historically accurate you make your show, you always run a risk of being misconstrued or misinterpreted or simply people missing the point that this area is a) dangerous, b) should be protected, and c) is sacred to the people that once lived there and witnessed this disaster. Even if you can beautifully articulate this point in your work, as I feel Chernobyldid, capitalism will continue to roam free in the area and people will continue to not understand why taking smiling selfies in a reactor room where people lost their lives is in poor taste, to put it mildly. 

Creating series like this are so important for everyone, and I cannot express how vital it is for everyone to understand this topic, no matter how little of it they understand. And if we remove the tour guides, the souvenir shops and the memorabilia, the Chernobylseries has achieved its main goal: one thing is for sure, the disaster of Chernobyl on the April, 26 1986 will never be forgotten. 

 

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