The Second Sino-Japanese War and its Legacy: A National Trauma and a Family Tragedy

I was 12 when I went to my great-grandfather's grave in Anhui province, China. Buried under thick undergrowth, the stone coffin bespoke of age with discolouration and cracks. My mother told me that he was a hero, and I didn't know that until I saw the exhibition at a nearby pavilion, detailing his deeds.

Here Jiaxin Liu explains his family’s story amid the Second Sino-Japanese War.

Japanese troops in the ruins of Shanghai in 1937.

Born to a well-to-do family in 1919, my great-grandfather came of age when the Japanese invaded China during World War 2. The Chinese theater was brutal — the Japanese broke through Chinese defense with their technological prowess and committed some of the most unspeakable atrocities. The Yangtze region — where Anhui was situated — was quickly subjugated, and my great-grandfather became a personification of resistance as he led his forces in guerilla battles throughout the countryside. He threatened Japanese control, and a bounty of 8,000 yuan was administered for his capture, dead or alive. In 1942, my great-grandfather was betrayed, resulting in a protracted torture session that resulted in death. Refusing to surrender, my great-grandfather was strapped to the tiger chair, repeatedly whipped, and had his shoulder pierced by screws. It was a storybook sacrifice, and he was memorialized as a local martyr whose valor should be emulated by future generations.

Invasion

Tense relations characterized the war's prelude as a result of Japanese imperialist policy and weakening Chinese authority from civil strife. After controlling Manchuria, the Japanese launched a full scale invasion of China in 1937 after a skirmish at the Marco Polo Bridge. Beijing and Tianjin soon fell, and Chiang Kai-Shek—then leader of the Republic of China (ROC)—declared a full-on resistance movement. The Japanese responded by sieging Shanghai, where they encountered heavy air, sea, and naval opposition as the best Chinese troops were stationed there. Failing to achieve air dominance, the battle dragged on for 3 months until overwhelming Japanese firepower overtook the Chinese, who were often poorly equipped with small arms. Nanjing was next, where a brutal massacre of civilians revealed the utmost depravity of mankind. Yet, advances stalled as the Japanese had insufficient manpower to take over key inland cities such as Chongqing, and the mountainous terrain of Western China provided the natural setting for guerilla warfare as the Chinese decided to "trade space for time", engaging in a war of attrition. This was not easy—concurrently, the ROC were battling the Communists, and the temporary alliance of the Second United Front to fight against the Japanese was tenuous at best. My great-grandfather was under the Communist's wing, and there was little cooperation as he conducted raids on an independent scale. It was a messy period in China's history, one that was characterized by internal and external strife. However, like our nonchalance towards ongoing wars in Yemen and Ethiopia in comparison to the Russo-Ukrainian war, most modern audiences in the West are unfamiliar with this immense conflict. Behind Russia, China accrued the greatest number of war casualties, yet people only hear of Bulge and Dunkirk, not of Nanjing or Shanghai.

Animosities towards the Japanese ran deep after the "Asian holocaust" the Japanese committed in China, most notably expressed in the Rape of Nanking, where the Imperial Japanese Army massacred more than 200,000 civilians. Looting, rape, and mass burials were characteristic behaviours of the "Kill All, Burn All, Loot All" policy of Emperor Hirohito. My great-grandfather's death was a personal anecdote that revealed the ultra-aggressive militarism and coercion which dominated Japanese rule. Such hatred is entrenched—to this day, my grandmother is unable to shake off an innate disaffection towards the Japanese. The Second Sino-Japanese War has embedded deeply into the Chinese psyche. Being the last major foreign invasion to take place in contemporaneity, older generations can personally recount this "darkest age" of Modern Chinese history. In a wider context, it was a climatic coda to the Century of Humiliation — a period of foreign interference in Chinese affairs — that tore down a 5,000 year tradition of imperial dynasties. In a sense, the Second Sino-Japanese war ushered in the conscience of Modern China. China had to become a modern nation subscribed to the Western-centric international order, not a civilization that believed in its unequaled superiority of being the "middle kingdom of the universe". The brutal Japanese invasion was the latest in a string of wake-up calls that made the Chinese question their fall from grace. It was an unforgettable lesson.

Turning

By 1939, the tides had turned with Chinese victories at Changsha and Zaoyi. The aftermath of the victory left China's economy in shambles and civil war between the Nationalists and Communists continued. The Communists, who won the heart of the populace with their indefatigable tenacity of grassroots mobilisations, drove the Nationalists to Taiwan, and the conflict remains till today. Their dominance could not have been possible without the Sino-Japanese war, and the invocation of this pivotal event remains etched in state propaganda and TV shows.

The Chinese victory has recently passed its 77th anniversary on September 3rd. The newer generation worries more about housing prices and job opportunities rather than death by gunfire. To many of my younger cousins in China, Japan is viewed positively with its huge cultural influence of anime and manga. Times change, and so do perceptions. Yet, the horrors of war—while distant—materializes itself in those late-night conversations I had with grandparents. In their trembling tone, they narrated a life much different from ours: instead of seeking to thrive, they merely wished to survive. My paternal grandfather remembered peeking from behind a bush at a Japanese execution of the village elders. My maternal grandfather told me of air raids that seemed like armageddon. The war left an indelible mark on Chinese history, and even people like me, more than half a century after the war, can obtain a first-hand account. Its subtle influence should be preserved, and it is now my generation’s duty to remind posterity that peace is not an a priori condition we take for granted, but an outcome we should work towards.

What do you think of the impact of the Second Sino-Japanese War? Let us know below.

Biography

My name is Jiaxin, and I am currently residing in Singapore. I am passionate about history, especially cultural history, as well as interactions between civilizations. In my free time, I enjoy playing strategy games such as Europa Universalis IV, as well as playing sports and going to the gym.

From Far To Near - The Role of Eastern Philosophy In The West

When it comes to philosophy, America relies a lot on the history of European philosophy - and for good reason, given the cultural heritage of the country. However, as the nation embarks on another round of collective soul searching, the South China Morning Post has suggested that the use of Asian philosophy, from China, India and Japan, could have a beneficial impact on a country like the US that is struggling with a sense of identity. Looking at how these ideas would benefit America is best considered through the history of the study, and how these philosophies reached American shores. Jennifer Dawson explains.

A depiction of Chinese philosopher Confucius.

Chinese philosophy and emotion

While eastern philosophy often rests on what China has to offer, one of the greatest western proponents of the practice, Alan Watts, actually started as a Buddhist historian. Alan Watts' writing and books focused on how eastern philosophy has a sense of principles and living life according to that, rather than goals such as career, earnings, family or social life. This has been of enormous comfort to Chinese and East Asian people for thousands of years, especially in the tough conditions that prevailed until very recent years - China only seriously industrialized from the 1980s. The BBC have charted the rise of the anti work movement, tied to disillusionment with the idea that career is everything. Chinese philosophy provides a different way to approach life, one that seeks to identify principles and live by them - everything else is secondary.

Looking to Japan

According to the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Japanese philosophy may be one of the most intentionally well informed schools of thought anywhere in the world. The island has been subject to attempted invasions throughout its history and has had more Western influence since World War II. As a result, Japanese philosophy is at once similar to other regional practices, like Korean and Chinese, but is also very inclusive of western practices. This makes it a very modern, and very apt choice for western society. What does it teach? Japanese philosophy builds on the sense of having your own guiding principles and embraces the need for discipline to yourself and others, manifested through kindness and balance.

India’s ancient roots

The term ‘Indian philosophy’ is something of a misnomer given the staggering diversity of India and the wider subcontinent. However, that diversity of religion - between Theraveda Buddhism, Hinduism, Sikhism, Islam and Vajrayana - has given rise to a deep and important set of philosophical teachings. Indian philosophy has seen a huge growth in interest in recent years, especially in the western new age movement, with teachings related to Samkhya. According to analysis by General.com, this is the theory that the entire world stems from the self - and is similar to the western dualist philosophy of mind and body.

As it happens, many of the principles of eastern teaching that are relied on today actually have a lot to owe to western interaction. Building a graduated approach in this manner is a great way for learners to build their own sense of self.

Sir Thomas More’s Utopia: The Ideal Society

Sir Thomas More (1478-1535) was influential during the reign of King Henry VIII of England. During his reign he held many influential positions, and also wrote the classic book Utopia, published in 1516. In the book he discusses an ideal - utopian - model of society. Ezra Cox explains.

An illustration for the first edition of Utopia in 1516.

The book Utopia, otherwise known as “a little, true book, not less beneficial than enjoyable, about how things should be in a state and about the new island Utopia”, is a monograph which is a work of fiction and a socio-political satire. The monographs author is Sir Thomas More. More was an important statesman, lawyer, and humanist under the rule of King Henry VIII. More is widely known for his refusal to take the Oath of Supremacy, the oath that made the King the supreme head of the church, and this had More summarily executed for treason as More was a devote Catholic.

Regarding the monograph's time of completion, More published the book in 1516. Furthermore, More’s reason for publishing Utopia has been theorized by numerous historians. For instance, in historian J.H Hexter’s book About Utopia, Hexter argues that “More wanted his readers to take seriously the community of life and property that he ascribed to the commonwealth of the Utopians”(1), while David M Bevington argues that More created two personas to say different sides of the usefulness of Utopia as a state and how Utopia can be a blueprint for a nation.(2) Bevington argues that the character Raphael Hythloday’s “platform is the common ownership of property and specifies that Hythloday refuses to concede the feasibility of gradual reform”.(3), and More’s persona argues in favour of gradual changes within practical politics.(4)  The two arguments from Hexter and Bevington comment upon the topic of Tudor society. The two arguments correlate as Hexter and Bevington speak of no property and More’s intention to spread the way of living in his Utopia. Whereas the targeted audience could be Henry VIII, as More addressed the greatness of Henry at the beginning of Utopia, “Henry VIII, the unconquered King of England, a prince adorned with all the virtues that become a great monarch”.(5) The praise for Henry and More’s creation of two personas in his monograph demonstrates how More did not want to be seen as criticising his King but the two personas gave him some leeway into delivering his thoughts on a ‘perfect state’.

Civic humanism

More’s Utopia is a useful and important piece of fiction because it explores ideas of civic humanism. Civic humanism is a form of republicanism that involves the fusion of political engagement with classical learning.(6) The first instance of More’s humanism comes from when his Greek and most important character Hythloday utters that “Rome did not leave anything important besides the writings of Seneca and Cicero”.(7) Secondly, More’s Utopia has several references to Plato’s imaginary republic.(8) The monograph illustrates a perfect republic, in which its society is equal, there is no King or Emperor, no private property and no individual cares about the need for wealth or riches. This idea at the time is similar to an alien-like nation because, during the sixteenth century, the majority of nations were controlled primarily by their King. Hence More’s political thinking and thoughts on politics at the time can be attributed to a conversation between Hythloday, persona More and Peter Giles. Hythloday says, “Friends should not expect that for their sake I should enslave myself to any king whatsoever”.(9) Peter articulates, “I do not mean that you should be a slave to any king, just so you can assist them”, Raphael “The change of the word does not alter the matter”.(10) The small conversation taken from More’s Utopia puts into reference More’s political awareness at the time. More had meant that any advisor to a King would be a slave as no King would listen to proper reason. This could have been More’s thoughts on becoming an advisor and future chancellor under Henry as More had already stated in his monograph that “each King has many wise men in his ear”.(11)

Additionally, More’s idea of no private property and equality in society can be likened to the idea of Communism. More’s book and name invoked the support of the Soviet states, as well as in support of the anti-communist position of the papacy as stated by Bevington.(12) As well as Brendan Bradshaw's quote “Utopia is not simply an imaginative reconstruction of society as it might have been in a state of perfect nature, it is rather More’s conception of how a just society could be created, human nature being what it is”(13), both Bradshaw and Bevington interpret how More conceived the idea of a perfect and equal state but Bevington argues how Utopia has been viewed through time as its ideas have linked with modern-day communism. This is because communism as an ideology reiterates the need for no private property and no social order. Thus, More’s Utopia is a key piece of literature because it can be used and read for its ideas of a republic that would not be seen in Europe until the twentieth century.

More’s theory of a perfect state in Utopia has been contested and compared in other contemporary monographs, such as Sir Thomas Smith’s De Republica Anglorum. A major similarity between More and Smith's works is the displacement of a King or ruler. Smith explains the “Continuance of rule, from the kings of Rome to the consuls, to the triumvirates, to the direct rule of Scylla and Caesar”(14), and “For the usurping of the rascality can never long endure but necessarily breadth and quickly bring forth a tyrant”.(15) Whilst Smith remarks how a ruler would eventually become a tyrant or dictator, in More’s Utopia there is no King but a Prince who does not have control and would be removed from office if he tried to control the populace of Utopia.(16) A contrast between Smith and More is how Smith sees the family in a commonwealth - he argues how women would take care of the family whilst the husband would be the main breadwinner.(17) More inversely remarks that men, women, and children would be accustomed to agriculture, therefore women have a role that would contribute to society.(18) The two monographs have interesting comparisons and were completed at similar times. As for Smith’s opinion on women, he was not in favour of the other sex and thought they should not meddle in affairs of government and ought to remain at home to take care of the home.(19)

What do you think of Thomas More’s Utopia? Let us know below.

Bibliography

Smith, Thomas Sir, De Republica Anglorum, a discourse on the Commonwealth of England (London, 1583).

More, Sir Thomas, Utopia (London, 1516).

Hexter, J. H, ‘Intention, words, and meaning: The Case of More’s Utopia’, New Literary History vol 6, no 3, History and Criticism: II (1975), 529-541.

Fokkema, Douwe, ‘The Utopia of Thomas More’, Amsterdam University Press (2011), 31-48,

Caudle, Mildred Witt, ‘Sir Thomas More’s “Utopia”: Origins and Purposes’, Social Science vol 45, no 3 (1970), 163-169.

Bradshaw, Brendan, ‘More on Utopia’, The Historical Journal vol 24, no 1 (1981), 1-27.

Bevington, M. David, ‘The Dialogue in “Utopia”: The Two Sides to the Question’, Studies in Philology vol 58, no 3 (1961), 496-509.

References

1 J.H Hexter, ‘Intention, words, and meaning: The Case of More’s Utopia’, New Literary History vol 6, no 3, History and Criticism: II (1975), 529-541 (534).

2 David. M Bevington, ‘The Dialogue in “Utopia”: The Two Sides to the Question’, Studies in Philology vol 58, no 3 (1961), 496-509 (496).

3 Bevington, ‘The Dialogue in “Utopia”: The Two Sides to the Question’, 496.

4 Bevington, ‘The Dialogue in “Utopia”: The Two Sides to the Question’, 496.

5 Sir Thomas More, Utopia (London, 1516), 1.

6 Mildred Witt Caudle, ‘Sir Thomas More’s “Utopia”: Origins and Purposes’, Social Science vol 45, no 3 (1970), 163-169 (164).

7 More, Utopia, 2.

8 Douwe Fokkema, ‘The Utopia of Thomas More’, Amsterdam University Press (2011), 31-48 (32).

9 More, Utopia, 5.

10 More, Utopia, 5.

11 More, Utopia, 8.

12 Bevington, ‘The Dialogue in “Utopia”: The Two Sides to the Question’, 496.

13 Brendan Bradshaw, ‘More on Utopia’, The Historical Journal vol 24, no 1 (1981), 1-27 (5).

14 Sir Thomas Smith, De Republica Anglorum, a discourse on the Commonwealth of England (London, 1583), 12.

15 Smith, De Republica Anglorum, a discourse on the Commonwealth of England, 12.

16 More, Utopia, 8.

17 Smith, De Republica Anglorum, a discourse on the Commonwealth of England, 22.

18 More, Utopia, 10.

19 Smith, De Republica Anglorum, a discourse on the Commonwealth of England, 19.

The Industrial Revolution: Shaping American History

The Industrial Revolution was a time of great change in America, and it had many important and lasting impacts. Here, Andrew Kim considers some of the most important themes: inequality, the power of big companies, and gender issues.

A Ford Model-T assembly line in the early 20th century.

After the Civil War came the Industrial Revolution, which changed the way that America functioned in many ways. Before this time period, the majority of Americans lived more localized lives, producing much of their own food and goods. However, with the rise of industrialization, people began moving away from farms and into cities. Along with the rise of industrialization came the rise of big corporations and businesses, which took advantage of people working these new factory jobs. People were paid little and had very poor working conditions. Because pay was so low, many women and children also worked in these factories. This led to the emergence of reform movements to improve the quality of American life. By 1920, these movements achieved better working conditions for the working class, supervision of business typhoons, and monumental strides in women’s rights.

Inequality

With the rise of industrialization came the growing gap between the rich and poor. While the rich indulged in elaborate and excessive riches, the working class suffered some of the worst living and working conditions. The Jungle, by Upton Sinclair, detailed these awful working and living conditions through the experiences of a man named Jurgis, who worked in a meat packing factory. Almost everyone in Jurgis’s family was forced to work, often from early morning to late at night in hazardous conditions without any breaks. Clara Lemlich, also an author and women’s rights activist, brought attention to this issue in an article she wrote about the conditions of a shirtwaist factory, stating that the young girls that worked there would work a total of 13 hours with only a half an hour break. Under these working conditions, it is no surprise that many people died in factories. And not only were these working conditions terrible, but after work, many people would come home to poor living conditions as well, furthering mortality rates. Jacob Rilis, a Danish-American journalist and social activist, documented these poor living conditions in a photograph he took of two newsboys sleeping fully clothed on the ground of the pressroom where they worked. In the end, these people and countless other reformers and activists would bring enough attention to the issue to bring about reform laws for workers, including minimum wage, industrial accident insurance, child labor restrictions, and improved factory regulation.

Industrialization also made big companies extremely influential and powerful, and they were often able to avoid regulation by the government, often by making deals with corrupt government officials. Andrew Carnegie, a mogul of the steel industry, negotiated a deal with the railroad companies in order to lessen transportation costs, which angered farmers. Many people saw how corporations could influence the government and were motivated to do something about it. People began advocating that railroads and banks be operated by the government instead of private corporations, because they were services of the people, and not big businesses. Reformers used many different methods to limit the power that corporations had over the government including referendums, primary elections, and recalls. Eventually in 1913, the 17th amendment was passed, stating that each state would have 2 senate votes, and each senator could hold office for six years. Because of the efforts of the reformers and activists, people were able to regain their voice in government and prevent corporations from taking over.

Gender

In the late 1800s, there was a big inequality gap between men and women; women lacked the human rights that men had, and were treated as lower than men. Women were not allowed a voice in almost every aspect of life, from government, to home life, to religion, to education. Elizabeth Stanton, a women’s rights reformer, advocated for women's rights by detailing the limitations women faced in the Declaration of Sentiments in 1846, which was largely ridiculed after its release. However, by the 1900s, the purposes and plans of the National Women’s Association were represented by 26 states, and in places like Alabama, more and more women sought an education, as written in the Southern Workman, monthly journal published by the Hampton Institute Press. In the 1920s, women celebrated a huge victory with the signing of the 19th Amendment, which legalized women’s suffrage.

The Industrial Revolution was a time of great change in America. With the tremendous growth of large corporations and subsequent government corruption came the necessity for regulation and reform for the protection of the rights of the American people, which perhaps brought to light the question of women’s rights. These movements certainly shaped the trajectory of American society for years to come, and also made way for future revolutions and reform, including the Civil Rights Movement.

What do you think of the American Industrial Revolution? Let us know below.

Quack Doctors Throughout History

Throughout history, the idea of using fake cures to prevent and treat disease has thrived on the fears, vulnerabilities and a lack of scientific knowledge of the public.  A quack doctor was historically a figure intending on deceiving their customers and patients, for profit, with no skill, knowledge or equipment of the medical world, but claimed their wares could cure and treat illnesses. The reasons why these fake and unreliable treatments thrived are not as clear-cut as it appears. For example, some individuals today may seek out these quacks after desperation from not gaining support from medical professionals, their religious beliefs or superstitions and curiosity for less clinical treatments for their conditions.

Amy Chandler explains.

The Quack Doctor, a 17th century painting by Jan Victors.

The Coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic is no exception to the rise of quack cures, treatments and ways to prevent catching the virus. Despite our society's advancement in medicine, science and technology, the same human fear and vulnerabilities prevail, such as a desire to take control of the situation. Many quack theories emerged during the pandemic suggesting drinking hot water and lemon or smoking as effective prevention. This article explores the rise of quack doctors throughout British history, with a particular focus on eighteenth-century medicine, and its impact on public health.

The rise of fake doctors and medicines

During the eighteenth century, the prospects of surviving over the age of forty for many poor and working class individuals were low. Treatments and surgery were dangerous and painful, especially with no antiseptics and anaesthetics. The rise of the industrial revolution in Great Britain, 1750 to 1850, caused a large number of people to travel to major cities like London to find better employment and improve social status. However, the reality was depressing, poverty-stricken and disease-ridden. Diseases including cholera, typhus and smallpox made death a regular occurrence. Many women did not survive childbirth due to infection and unsanitary hospitals, and if the child did survive birth, it was estimated that one in five infants died before their second birthday.(1) The streets in London were filled with rubbish, rotting food, rats and fleas, contaminated drinking water and poor living conditions that contributed to high mortality rates. Medical knowledge during this time focused on Hippocrates’ theory of the Four Humours and was later expanded by Galen. This theory suggested that the human body had four elements connected to the seasons. The elements were blood, yellow bile, black bile and phlegm. A healthy lifestyle and body meant these elements were in balance, and unbalanced humours caused illness because the body had too much of one humour. Treatments for unbalanced humours included bloodletting. Furthermore, the access to medical treatments provided by doctors was expensive for the working classes, meaning many poorer individuals resorted to consulting barber-surgeons for treatments, such as pulling teeth, amputation and blood-letting through leeches. Due to these dangerous and unsuccessful treatments, many poorer members of society would seek other forms of treatment. The rise of self-treatment and traditional remedies from apothecaries created an opportunity for quack doctors to provide miracle, cure-all medicines.

The reaction throughout Europe towards quack doctors, 'quackery' as many referred to the practice, was mixed and resentful amongst professional medical doctors, who valued science rather than superstition. Many members of the general public were quick to be drawn into the allure of quack cures and lacked the knowledge to condemn them as fake. The Buckingham Express, 1892, reported riots in Russia by peasants who attacked Russian doctors who were medically trained and favoured the quack doctors instead. This report suggested the reaction of the peasants to show “clear widespread superstition in the country” that felt more comfortable with spiritualism rather than science.  An example of a popular cure for fever was called “frogs and fright” and it was said that it was unknown if this method killed more than cure, but “it has its advantages, as it must do one or the other”.(2) This is an example of medicines and treatments not having scientific evidence but still having an impact by coincidence or a psychosomatic effect.

Furthermore, an account by Mr G A Brine, reported in the Charity Organisation Reporter, 1875, described his employment as an assistant to a quack doctor. Brine met the unnamed ‘doctor’ when sharing the same accommodation and asked if he was willing to "easily earn a couple of shillings".(3) Brine, being a “pauper in Sherborne workhouse”, accepted this offer gratefully, without much thought of what the work entailed. The next day Brine and the elusive ‘doctor’ visited the marketplace in the afternoon while the doctor was selling “virtues of his infallible medicines”, Brine played an important role in this performance to help sell the medicines. Brine was given money by the vendor to pretend to purchase “half-a-dozen boxes of the pills” and announced that he and others had “derived immense benefits from their use” and claimed he could never be without this medicine.

This account of what it was like to work with a fake doctor highlights that it's not just the customers who are fooled into buying fake medicine, but those who were involved in the practice.  Accomplices are motivated by money and the disadvantages of their socioeconomic living and working conditions. Brine is an example of an individual who worked in a workhouse, was poor and had no means of gaining money or moving beyond his social status. The allure of this mystery quack doctor offered Brine a way to earn decent money and survive at the expense of the customers. While Brine takes no responsibility for his involvement in fooling the general public, he described his involvement as a “tool at the hands of others”.(4) This idea emphasises how the key to success for many ‘doctors’ was the way they manipulated the public and played on their fears, vulnerabilities, socioeconomic situation and lack of knowledge, as a performance that drew others into the lie.

Brine was employed in the business and earned a substantial wage from his role in selling at the marketplace and collecting the ingredients for the pills and medicines. These pills were ready-made and coated with finely ground sugar and flour, dried and placed in ready-made pillboxes. This concoction was marketed as ‘American Sugar Coated pills’ containing vegetables and did not contain mercury or other poisonous substances that medically trained doctors prescribed. In some ways, the fake medicine was less dangerous than some professionally prescribed pills, as it did not contain substances like mercury. The quack doctor was skilled enough to fool various villages across England but was a “greater fool” than Brine, as he “could not read a paragraph in a newspaper, and could scarcely write his own name”.(5) This observation by Brine praises how despite having no formal education, there was skill in seeing an opportunity to benefit them.

Successful quack doctors

Many quack doctors throughout history have been called out for their fake cures and lack of medical qualifications, while a few have successfully managed to fool royalty with their miracle cures. The performance of a quack gained advantageous alliances, such as the press, with many selling their concoctions on press property and sharing the profits.(6)

Other quack doctors used the press to advertise their miracle drugs, such as Chevalier Ruspini in 1826. Historians have discovered that Ruspini was trained as a surgeon but decided to branch off into dentistry in 1758, but dentistry was not seen as a respectable career. Ruspini created an image as a surgeon dentist specialising in treatments for illnesses relating to teeth and gums. Ruspini printed an advertisement in the Public Ledger and Daily Advertiser on 31 May 1826, which “begs to inform the Nobility, Gentry and the public that he [Ruspini] has appointed Mr Charles Butler […] agent for the sale of his medicines”.(7)  This treatment was called “Dentifrice and Tincture for beautifying and preserving the teeth and gums, and fastening those teeth that are loose”.(8) The advertisement also continues by suggesting the authenticity of the product is only guaranteed by Ruspini’s name engraved onto the government stamp attached to each bottle. It is ironic that Ruspini was concerned about fake and counterfeit versions of his medicines, but implied that customers should be wary of buying fake goods. While Ruspini is regarded as completing medical qualifications, he blurs the truth with embellishments to disguise his dentistry with surgery.

In comparison, Doctor Joshua Ward, in 1733, built a reputation as a noble and miracle curer of all ailments and had a brief career in politics as an MP. Early in Ward’s career, he moved to work in Paris and developed his popular and successful Ward’s Pills and Ward’s Drops, which caused harmful side effects, such as violent sweating.(9) By 1733 he returned to England and created the successful and popular ‘Friar’s Balsams’. Due to Ward’s success, he became a recommended figure among high-ranking officials such as Lord Chief Justice Reynolds and General John Churchill. Ward’s credibility became secured when King George II sprained his thumb and called upon Ward for the “purpose of setting his majesty’s sprained thumb”.(10) It is uncertain whether Ward’s medicines were effective, but while he was attending to King George II, the King recovered, and this secured Ward’s reputation as a doctor and acquired wealthy patients. There are reports that Ward was awarded the thanks by the House of Commons and was given permission to drive his carriage through St James’s park. Endorsement from the King protected Ward from public criticism from the college of physicians.(11)

The Victoria and Albert Museum (V&A) in London displays a statue of Ward in their collection. This statue housed in the V&A was for Ward’s grave located at Westminster Abbey, and after his death in 1761, he was given an ostentatious funeral.(12) Ward’s legacy as a successful doctor overshadows the truth behind his fake cures with generally lethal side effects, but he is also noted for his philanthropic nature, such as building hospitals for the poor and generous financial donations.(13)

Parliamentary reaction

Parliament in Great Britain during the eighteenth century attempted to regulate and prevent toxic medicines from being sold to the general public by quack doctors and medically untrained merchants. As the selling and advertising of toxic, fake medicines became more frequent, Lord John Cavendish, Chancellor of the Exchequer, decided to pass the 1783 Medicine Stamp Duty tax to regulate the medicine trade by unqualified entrepreneurs and raise money.(14) This tax required all medicine sellers to purchase an annual licence, and a stamp to be attached to the packaging to show the duty had been paid. Specific groups were exempt from paying duty and licences, for example, respected professions, such as surgeons, military medical professionals and physicians. However, this tax targeted the individual that sold the medicine rather than the harmfulness of the product. This tax also did not produce as much revenue as predicted. In 1875, the tax was redefined and required every medicinal seller to pay tax on medicine, regardless of status and qualifications, and specific ingredients were taxed more than others.(15) This Act was a start toward regulating the work of quack doctors, but it would take many more centuries until the stricter regulation of medicine.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the rise of quack medicine claimed to cure all, prevent and treat disease, reached a peak in the eighteenth and early nineteenth century. Parliamentary action to regulate and manage the growing number of opportunists and entrepreneurs, who fooled the general public with their performance and allure of the exotic. The success of many quack doctors was the mystery, price and feeding on fears, vulnerabilities and lack of medical and scientific knowledge of the customer and patient. Furthermore, the accessibility of these fake medicines claiming to cure, prevent and treat all diseases was easy to access through marketplaces and shops instead of the path of a physician’s advice and prescription. The cost of a physician was not always accessible to the working and poorer classes, but the opportunity for self-treatment with miracle cures held a lot of appeal. In society today, the regulation of medicine and who can prescribe these are much stricter and ensures the health and safety of the patient. However, there are always opportunities for fake and ineffective products to surface and requires the consumer to be aware of what they buy.

What do you think of quack doctors? Let us know below.

Now read Amy’s article on the Great Stench in 19th century London here.

References

1 M. White, ‘Health, Hygiene and the rise of ‘Mother Gin’ in the 18th Century’, 2009, British Library < https://www.bl.uk/georgian-britain/articles/health-hygiene-and-the-rise-of-mother-gin-in-the-18th-century >[accessed 1 October 2022].

2 Buckingham Express, ‘Quack Cures’, Buckingham Express (20 August 1892).

3 G. A. Brine, ‘ Confessions Of A Quack Doctor’, The British Medical Journal, vol. 2 (1875),pp.111-112.

4 Ibid.,p. 112.

5 Ibid.,p. 112.

6 A. Teal, ‘The art of medicine - Quacks and hacks: Georgian medicine and the power of advertising’, The Lancet, vol. 383 (2014),p.404.

7 ‘Chevalier Ruspini’s Medicines’, 31 May 1826, Public Ledger and Daily Advertiser.

8 Ibid.

9 Science Museum Group, ‘Joshua Ward 1684 – 1761’, 2022, Science Museum Group < https://collection.sciencemuseumgroup.org.uk/people/cp119760/joshua-ward >[accessed on 23 September 2022].

10 W. Sydney, England and the English in the eighteenth century (London, Ward & Downey, 1891), p,309.

11 Ibid.

12 Westminster Abbey, ‘Joshua Ward’, Westminster Abbey, 2022 <  https://www.westminster-abbey.org/abbey-commemorations/commemorations/joshua-ward >[accessed on 23 September 2022].

13 Science Museum Group., op.cit.

14 C. Stebbings, ‘Chapter 8: Tax and Quacks: The policy of the Eighteenth Century Medicine Stamp Duty’ in: Tiley J, ed., Studies in the History of Tax Law, vol. 6 (Oxford, Hart Publishing, 2013) < https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK293691/ >.

15 Ibid.

Bibliography

‘Chevalier Ruspini’s Medicines’, 31 May 1826, Public Ledger and Daily Advertiser.

Brine, G. A. ‘ Confessions Of A Quack Doctor’, The British Medical Journal, vol. 2,no.760, July., 1875, pp. 111-112.

Buckingham Express, ‘Quack Cures’, Buckingham Express (20 August 1892).

Science Museum Group, ‘Joshua Ward 1684 – 1761’, 2022, Science Museum Group < https://collection.sciencemuseumgroup.org.uk/people/cp119760/joshua-ward >.

Stebbings, C. ‘Chapter 8: Tax and Quacks: The policy of the Eighteenth Century Medicine Stamp Duty’ in: Tiley J, ed., Studies in the History of Tax Law, vol. 6 (Oxford, Hart Publishing, 2013) < https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK293691/ >.

Sydney, W. England and the English in the eighteenth century (London, Ward & Downey, 1891).

Teal, A, ‘The art of medicine - Quacks and hacks: Georgian medicine and the power of advertising’, The Lancet, vol. 383, Feb., 2014,pp. 404-405.

Westminster Abbey, ‘Joshua Ward’, Westminster Abbey, 2022 <  https://www.westminster-abbey.org/abbey-commemorations/commemorations/joshua-ward >.

White, M. ‘Health, Hygiene and the rise of ‘Mother Gin’ in the 18th Century’, 2009, British Library < https://www.bl.uk/georgian-britain/articles/health-hygiene-and-the-rise-of-mother-gin-in-the-18th-century >.

Haunted Histories in 5 American Towns

History is everywhere - even in ghost stories. Every town has their local tales of ghostly happenings. They are passed on from person to person through generations. Many cities have ghost tours that squire people around to buildings, homes and parks in their area. These tours tell of paranormal activity and strange experiences. Everyone loves to be scared a little. But behind all ghost stories is history. The history of real people, real places and real events.

Ghost tours are a great way to learn local history that may not be in history books or even on the internet. Whether you believe in ghost stories or not, there is so much history to be gleaned from them. This history can allow us to see our cities with new eyes. Here are five American towns and some of their haunted history.

Angie Grandstaff explains.

Ichabod pursued by the Headless Horseman, a depiction from the 1820 book The Legend of Sleepy Hollow by Irving Washington.

The Oldest City - St. Augustine, Florida

Facts about St. Augustine:

• It was the first permanent European settlement in America. Established in 1565

• It was burnt to the ground by Sir Francis Drake in 1586 but was rebuilt

• The Castillo de San Marcos was a fort constructed in 1672 to help defend against attacks

• It is the home of the oldest wooden schoolhouse in America

The oldest city has many local ghost stories. Its black and white striped lighthouse is supposedly haunted by several specters. The St. Augustine lighthouse opened in 1874. Many caretakers lived and worked here. This historic lighthouse has many spooky stories associated with it including a man seen walking up and down the spiral staircase. He is dressed in a blue jacket and mariner’s cap. Visitors say they smell cigar smoke although it is a smoke free building. Some people think it is either lighthouse caretakers, William Russel or Joseph Andreu. Joseph Andreu fell to his death while painting the lighthouse in 1859. A woman has been seen by visitors on the catwalk looking down. Locals say it is the ghostly specter of Andreu’s wife looking at where her husband’s body must have lain after his deathly fall. His wife, Maria Mestre de Los Dolores, took Joseph’s job after he died. She was the first woman to serve in the Coast Guard and the first Hispanic American woman to command a federal shore installation. This was a huge achievement at the time.

The Casablanca Inn, formerly The Matanzas Hotel, is a historic hotel with a waterfront view and ghostly residents. Many locals and visitors have reported seeing a female apparition waving a lantern or just a waving light at night in a window or on the roof. The story behind this starts in the early 1900’s. The Casablanca Inn was a popular hangout spot for smugglers. A Ms. Bradshaw owned the hotel and was struggling to stay afloat during Prohibition. So, she took advantage of her smuggler connections and her prime location near the ocean to make some money. Ms. Bradshaw worked with bootleggers by giving them a place to store their illegal alcohol and being their local lookout. She would wave a lantern at a window on the second floor at night to signal bootleggers. This would let them know the coast was all clear for them to come ashore with their illegal spirits. This Inn saw several dangerous characters and shady happenings. A woman, possibly Ms. Bradshaw herself, and a child have been seen floating around the Inn. There are other stories of disembodied voices and misty fogs from customers and staff.      

Historic Harbor Town - Charleston, South Carolina

Facts about Charleston:

• It was named Charles Town after King Charles II

• It is estimated that 40% of enslaved Africans arrived in North America through Charleston’s harbor

• It was devastated by an earthquake in 1886

• It is nicknamed the Holy City for its tolerance of all religions

Charleston has spooky happenings all over the city particularly in its oldest building, The Old Exchange. There are many accounts of hearing screams and moans of pain coming from the bottom floor of this building. Chains still on the walls of the bottom floor have been seen to swing on their own. The sound of clinking chains has been heard by visitors and workers. Ghostly apparitions in Revolutionary War clothes have been seen roaming the building. There must be some interesting history behind these stories. The Old Exchange was built in 1771. It served as a public marketplace and custom house. Slave auctions were held here as well. So, what happened on the bottom floor of this building? Turns out it was used by the British during the American Revolution as a prison and was known as the Provost Dungeon. Prisoners were chained to the walls and left to die. Conditions were horrendous and prisoners were treated cruelly. Many prisoners waited for their execution in this dungeon including pirates and Revolutionary War traitors. The infamous Stede Bonnet, a gentleman pirate, was captured and held with his crew in this prison until their executions. 

Charleston had another prison called the Old City Jail. This jail was built in 1802 and was used until 1939. Among its prisoners were pirates, Civil War prisoners and a woman considered the first female serial killer in America, Lavinia Fisher. Fisher and her husband John owned a local inn. They drugged and murdered travelers who stayed with them. Husband and wife were eventually convicted and spent their final days in the Old City Jail. Lavinia went to the hangman’s noose reportedly saying, “If you have a message for the devil, give it to me and I’ll carry it”. Many inmates died in this jail from mistreatment, disease and starvation. Not surprisingly, there have been stories from visitors and locals about strange happenings. Stories about objects moving, whispering voices and slamming doors are just the beginning for this jail. When the building was closed for renovation in 2000, workers encountered a ghostly jailer who ran at them before disappearing and footsteps in the dust of a sealed off area.

The Legendary Sleepy Hollow

Facts about Sleepy Hollow:

• It has a long history dating back to the 1600s

• There have been witches, mad monks, Revolutionary War traitors and pirates connected to this little village

• The great American ghost story, The Legend of Sleepy Hollow, written by Sleepy Hollow resident, Washington Irving

• The Sleepy Hollow Cemetery is the final resting place for many historical figures such as Andrew Carnegie, Washington Irving, Elizabeth Arden, Rockefeller family members and the Queen of Mean Leona Helmsley

This sleepy Dutch village is the home of the Headless Horseman and a spooky cemetery. One of the cemetery’s spookiest residents is the Bronzed Lady. Locals have many tales involving the bronze statue of a woman who sits outside the mausoleum of Samuel Thomas. Many believe the Bronzed Lady can curse you if you touch her. She has been heard weeping by many. Some residents have stories of touching her face and feeling wet tears. The history behind these ghostly encounters starts with millionaire and Civil War General, Samuel Thomas. Thomas died in 1903 and was laid to rest in a mausoleum in Sleepy Hollow Cemetery. His widow, Ann, wanted something to place outside the mausoleum to further commemorate her husband’s life so she commissioned sculptor, Andrew O’Connor Jr., to create a bronze sculpture. The sculptor created a huge bronze statue of a woman sitting. Ann felt the woman’s face was too sad and downcast. She asked for something happier. O’Connor created a new head which pleased Ann but the temperamental artist smashed it to pieces and used the original more downcast head. The sculpture was still placed outside her husband’s mausoleum.  

Another historic haunt is Sunnyside, the home of Washington Irving. It is visited by thousands of tourists every year. Irving moved into this home in 1835. He was America’s first celebrity author, and his home was in magazines and guidebooks while he lived there. His four nieces lived with him and ran the household. This home saw many notable visitors and lively meetings with Irving and his literary friends. Irving died at Sunnyside in his bedroom in 1859. Visitors and workers have claimed to witness paranormal activity in the house and on the grounds. There have been photographs taken with ghostly images appearing in them. Visitors have said they felt pinched while touring the house and ghostly apparitions of young women have been seen tidying the home. Could these young women be Washington’s nieces?

Georgia’s Oldest City - Savannah, Georgia

Facts about Savannah:

• Savannah became the first planned city. It was laid out in a grid pattern with wide streets and public squares

• Savannah has been devastated by several fires and yellow fever epidemics

• The Girl Scouts were founded by Savannah resident, Juliette Gordon Low

• The famous bus stop scene from the movie Forrest Gump was filmed in Savannah

One of Savannah’s oldest buildings is The Pirate House. It is now a busy restaurant but it started as an inn and tavern built around 1753. The inn was frequented by pirates. There are tales of underground tunnels that led to the Savannah River. Pirates supposedly kidnapped drunk men and forced them into service as crew members on their ships. This inn was so famous for its pirate clientele that author Robert Louis Stevenson used it as a setting in his book, Treasure Island. There are many accounts of ghostly apparitions moving through the building. Visitors post pictures online of these ghosts looking out through the windows. Employees have seen the ghost of a menacing sailor and hear footsteps when they are alone in the building.

Savannah has a couple famous cemeteries including the Colonial Park Cemetery. It is the oldest in the city established in 1750. It is called the most haunted place in the city. Reports of mysterious sounds, shadowy figures, green mists and a man hanging from a tree have been given by locals and visitors. What is the history that could lead to these eerie tales? This cemetery has many mass graves from those times when yellow fever hit the city. Savannah dealt with many yellow fever epidemics because of the swampy areas that were breeding grounds for the mosquitos who transmitted it. Another spooky aspect of this cemetery is the fact that voodoo cemeteries were held there at night. Human bones would sometimes be used in these ceremonies which makes a cemetery ideal as a setting. The hanging man apparition may be Rene Rondolier who supposedly lived in Savannah during the early 1800's. Rondolier was accused of murdering a young girl and was lynched by locals in the Colonial Park Cemetery in 1821.    

Queen City - Cincinnati, Ohio

Facts about Cincinnati:

• It was known as the “Queen City of the West” because it served as a stopping point for many settlers heading West

• It was also known as “Porkopolis” because it was a major pork processing center in the early 1800s

• In 1880, there were 1800 saloons in the city

• It has three miles of an abandoned subway beneath its streets

Cincinnati has many haunted places including the beautiful Eden Park. This park started as a vineyard but was bought by the city in 1869. The lands held a reservoir for the city at one point and a famous gazebo was built there in 1904. There are several stories from locals about seeing a ghostly female dressed all in black around the gazebo and nearby Mirror Lake at dawn or dusk. Photographs showing a shadowy figure have been shared. What could be behind the woman in black? Many think the woman in black is Imogene Remus. Imogene was the wife of George Remus, the King of Bootleggers. George was a former lawyer who created a very successful bootlegging operation in Cincinnati until he was arrested for tax evasion in 1925. While George was in prison, Imogene filed for divorce. After his release the couple headed to court on October 6, 1927. George had his cab follow Imogene’s car and drove her off the road in front of the gazebo in Eden Park. Imogene and her daughter were in the car. George fatally shot Imogene. George represented himself in court and successfully used the plea of temporary insanity.     

The Cincinnati Music Hall was built in 1878. This Victorian Gothic style building is the musical center for the city and is known to be one of the most haunted buildings in America. Security guards, conductors and other employees have given many accounts of paranormal activity. Soldiers have been seen walking around as well as children in period dress. Music is heard playing in the middle of the night along with doors opening and closing, knocking throughout the building. What happened here that would lead to all these stories? It turns out the land that the Music Hall is built on was once the grounds for a Lunatic and Orphan Asylum as well as a ‘plague house’ with a pauper’s cemetery attached. A plague or pest house was where those afflicted with communicable diseases were treated. The plague house was moved and a military hospital was established during the Civil War. Whenever this land has been excavated or building renovated hundreds of pounds of human bones have been unearthed. The most recent renovation in 2017 led to the discovery of more human remains.      

What do you think of these haunted histories? Let us know below.

Now read Angie’s article on 5 of the oldest breweries in the USA here.

Angie Grandstaff is a writer and librarian. She loves to write about history, books and self-development. 

Resources

St. Augustine

https://www.legendsofamerica.com/fl-staugustine/

https://ghostcitytours.com/st-augustine/haunted-places/st-augustine-lighthouse/

https://ghostcitytours.com/st-augustine/haunted-places/casablanca-inn/

Charleston

https://www.legendsofamerica.com/sc-charleston/

https://www.oldexchange.org/highlights

https://www.scpictureproject.org/charleston-county/old-city-jail.html

Sleepy Hollow

https://www.sleepyhollowny.gov/discover-sleepy-hollow-ny/pages/history-of-the-village

https://www.usatoday.com/in-depth/news/nation/2021/10/25/sleepy-hollow-ghosts-bronze-lady-new-york/6175251001/

https://www.haunted-places-to-go.com/sleepy-hollow.html

https://visitingamuseum.com/2019/11/09/washington-irvings-sunnyside-3-west-sunnyside-lane-irvington-ny-10533/

Savannah 

https://www.visitsavannah.com/article/history-savannah

https://www.southernbellevacationrentals.com/blog/attractions/pirate-secrets-savannah-coast#:~:text=The%20U.S.%20Navy%20acquired%20the,an%20inn%20for%20visiting%20sailors.

https://www.travelchannel.com/destinations/us/ga/savannah/articles/haunted-savannah

https://ghostcitytours.com/savannah/haunted-places/colonial-park-cemetery/

Cincinnati

http://ohiohistorycentral.org/w/Cincinnati,_Ohio

https://cincinnatipreservation.org/haunted-spring-house-gazebo-in-eden-park/

https://www.onlyinyourstate.com/ohio/hauntingly-beautiful-music-hall-oh/

The First Sino-Japanese War: Imperialism at its Worst?

The annexation of territories has always been a prominent way of exhibiting any empire's stature and power. After all, a kingdom becomes an empire only when it acquires dominance over a considerable expanse of land. Many lives are, and have been, lost when conflict arises regarding matters of expansion. When two powers like China and Japan clash over the same piece of land, it's the perfect recipe for a disaster.

Here, Disha Mule explains the First Sino-Japanese War.

A depiction of the Battle of the Yalu River in 1894. By Kobayashi Kiyochika.

Qing China and Meiji Japan

Bureaucracy can weaken even the strongest foundation. Qing China was no stranger to that fact. It became noticeable with the military's incompetence in their Burmese and Vietnamese operations and caused hindrance in proper governance(1). In addition to that, the 1860 occupation of Peking by the British and French invoked hatred in the Chinese public. They started holding the ruling dynasty responsible for all the ill-happenings in the state. The people were immensely dissatisfied with the administration and many conspired to overthrow the Qings, also known as the Manchus, and establish a rule like that of the Hans.

As a result many rebellions broke out during the late eighteenth century. One of the more popular uprisings was the White Lotus Rebellion. An attempt at recovery from the losses caused by these uprisings, called the Tongzhi Restoration, was made. But the government could not restore the disrupted order to its earlier state(2).

The Opium Wars were an important factor in the decline of the Qing dynasty. An 'opium infestation' plagued China as the military and government officials started consuming the drug. In the year 1884 alone, around 81,000 chests of opium were imported in China; whereas the amount was only 1,000 chests in 1773(3). Given the state of these officials, it should not come as a surprise that the Daoguang emperor himself was a fan of opium(4). With the increase in these new difficulties, the continuous anti-dynastic rebellions and the failure of the system, Qing China was already losing its supremacy by the end of the Second Opium War.

Japan, on the other hand, was undergoing major modernization. Earlier, the military generals called shoguns oversaw the functioning of the state while the emperor had no powers. Later, the feudal system would be replaced by an oligarchy, the Tokugawa shogunate would be replaced and pave the way for an imperial state. While some of the measures were exploitative in nature, the educational system flourished during this period. With the increasing literacy rate, the Japanese set the wheels in motion for industrialization. This was called the Meiji Restoration.

Korea

China and Japan have a long history of enmity in which Korea was trapped as the battleground. The Chinese attacks on Japan in the thirteenth century and the attempts made by Japan to invade China were via Korea(5). Then again there were the coal and iron resources and the strategic location of Korea that attracted invaders(6).

Korea was an agrarian society. Agriculture was a top priority. The land was the property of the government and peasants did not care much for politics. However, the land ownership system started deteriorating once foreign powers intervened. The Russians arrived in 1860 and the British in 1861(7). The coming of foreign powers began a struggle for control over Korea and the animosity between two of them was almost palpable. Who were they? Japan and China.

To understand how both states wanted to consolidate power in the Korean Peninsula, the French missionaries in Korea are worth mentioning. In 1855, Siméon Berneux, the third Bishop of Korea arrived. The number of French priests would go on increasing after his arrival. China promoted tolerance towards Christianity in Korea which was then a Chinese protectorate. Most of the missionary activities that were limited to China till the 1860s started in Korea. The occupation of Peking by the British and the French along with the treaties of Tientsin (Tianjin) and Peking gave free reins for the spread of the religion(8). The topic might seem irrelevant for now, because what does this have to do with a war? This would be explained further in the article. Let's see what was happening in Japan.

Japanese newspapers relentlessly wrote about how Japan was the only civilized country in Asia on par with the West and how conservative Qing China was(9). One newspaper published an essay called "Japanese Soldiers Must Demonstrate Their Power to the World" which explicitly said that Japan should go on a war with China and Korea to display its military might(10). In 1884, Japan also supported the Gapsin coup which attempted to bring about reforms in Korea which was still under China's shadow. After the failure of the coup, the Treaty of Tianjin was signed in 1885 which made it mandatory for Japan and China to notify the other when either of them took military action(11).

The Tonghak Rebellion

The Tonghak (or Donghak) Rebellion was one of the triggers that started the first Sino-Japanese War. Tonghak was a religion that wanted to see the flourishing of "Eastern Learning" - the literal meaning of the name. The promotion of Christianity and the onslaught of Europeans on their land, mentioned in the previous section, had the entire Korean state in turmoil. In the light of the inefficient rule of the monarch, the revolt got enthusiastic support as they saw the religion as a way to establish their identity.

As the movement grew stronger and spread like wildfire throughout the entire state, the Korean crown asked for help from China. Chinese troops arrived in Korea in 1894. The Japanese saw this as a violation of the the Treaty of Tianjin, also known as the Li-Ito Convention, and sent their own troops.

On August 1, 1894, war was declared and both the armies clashed at sea in Asan striking the final match.

Japanese Victory

The two states fought for nine long months before the Treaty of Shimonoseki was signed which stated that Korea would be a Japanese protectorate(12). The bloody war resulted in China giving up territories like Taiwan and Liaodong Peninsula. It was also agreed that China would give certain privileges to Japanese traders and pay for the huge war losses with 200 million taels of silver(13).

The modernization of Japan was a major factor in their victory. The war was mostly fought at sea and the foresighted Japanese state had definitely benefited from an advanced navy, thanks to the Meiji Restoration. China, however, had used its naval funds for updating the Beijing's Summer Palace under Empress Cixi's orders(14).

The world saw the war as Japan's attempt at joining the European and American powers as a modernized country(15). The end of Chinese influence made it easy for Korea to be a Japanese colony, which it eventually became in 1910.

Even if the matter seemed to be settled for the time being, China and Japan would go on to fight again in 1937 - that would prove to be just a prelude to hard times that were yet to come.

What do you think of the First Sino-Japanese War? Let us know below.

Now read Disha’s article on the Hitler Youth here.

References

1 S.C.M. Paine, The First Sino-Japanese War: Perceptions, Power, and Primacy, 'The Decline of Order in China and Korea', 24

2 Ibid., 26

3 Peter C. Perdue, "The First Opium War - MIT Visualising Cultures", https://visualizingcultures.mit.edu/opium_wars_01/ow1_essay.pdf

4 Ibid.

5 Kallie Szczepanski, "The First Sino-Japanese War", thoughtco.com/first-sino-japanese-war-1894-95-195784

6 "First Sino-Japanese War", https://www.britannica.com/event/First-Sino-Japanese-War-1894-1895

7 Key Rey Chong, "The Tonghak Rebellion: Harbinger of Korean Nationalism", http://www.jstor.org/stable/23849478

8 Daniel C. Kane, "Bellonet and Roze: Overzealous Servants of Empire and the 1866 French Attack on Korea”, http://www.jstor.org/stable/23719212

9 Kyu Hyun Kim, 'The Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895): Japanese National Integration and Construction of the Korean “Other”'

10 Ibid.

11 Ibid.

12 Szczepanski, "The First Sino-Japanese War"

13 Ibid.

14 Ibid.

15 Douglas Howland, "Japan’s Civilized War: International Law as Diplomacy in the Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895)." Journal of the History of International Law Revue d’histoire du droit international Volume 9, Number 2, (2007),  200

Bibliography

Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "First Sino-Japanese War". Encyclopedia Britannica, 25 Jul. 2022, https://www.britannica.com/event/First-Sino-Japanese-War-1894-1895

Chong, Key Ray. “The Tonghak Rebellion: Harbinger of Korean Nationalism.” Journal of Korean Studies (1969-1971), vol. 1, no. 1, 1969, pp. 73–88. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/23849478

Howland, Douglas. "Japan’s Civilized War: International Law as Diplomacy in the Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895)." Journal of the History of International Law Revue d’histoire du droit international Volume 9, Number 2 (2007): 179-201.

Kane, Daniel C. “Bellonet and Roze: Overzealous Servants of Empire and the 1866 French Attack on Korea.” Korean Studies, vol. 23, 1999, pp. 1–23. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/23719212

Kim, Kyu Hyun. 'The Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895): Japanese National

Integration and Construction of the Korean “Other”' International Journal of Korean History (Vol.17 No.1, Feb.2012).

Paine, S.C.M. The Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895: Perceptions, Power, and Primacy. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003.

Perdue, Peter C. "The First Opium War - MIT Visualising Cultures" https://visualizingcultures.mit.edu/opium_wars_01/ow1_essay.pdf

Szczepanski, Kallie. "The First Sino-Japanese War". ThoughtCo, Aug. 28, 2020, thoughtco.com/first-sino-japanese-war-1894-95-195784.

The Age of in Reform in Japan and Ryokichi Minobe

One of the defining characteristics of Japan has been the consistency of its national politics, which since 1955 has been almost continuously dominated by the conservative Liberal Democratic Party (LDP). Here, Vittorio Trevitt looks at this in the context of Ryokichi Minobe.

Ryokichi Minobe in 1967.

In most liberal democracies, voters have become accustomed to alternations in power between parties of diametrically opposed ideological persuasions. This feature of democracy is alien to Japan, where there have been only two occasions since the first LDP government (originally from 1993-94 and again from 2009-2012) when opposition parties were able to form administrations. Neither of them, however, succeeded in breaking the LDPs long-term stranglehold over national politics. But on a regional and local level a different picture has often existed, where opposition figures have on multiple occasions held sway. Such a trend was particularly prevalent during the Sixties and Seventies, when several prefectures and councils elected progressive reformers dedicated to policies of reform and innovation often different from those pursued by the hegemonic LDP.  One of the most important of these was the governor of Toyko, Ryokichi Minobe.

A socialist of the Marxist tradition, Minobe had previously served in various government positions while also working as an economics professor. He became a known television personality, with a popular economics show where he discussed economic issues in an accessible way for people, while also conveying a positive image. When an election was held in 1967 for the position of Tokyo governor, Minobe stood as an independent candidate backed by the Socialist and Communist parties, winning a plurality against the LDP-backed incumbent. Minobe was the first progressive governor of the country’s leading metropolis to be elected to this post, one he would hold for the next 12 years.

Power

Minobe’s ascension to power, as historic as it was, was not a unique phenomenon. Instead, it was a reflection of the electorate’s appetite for fundamental change after decades of LDP rule. During the Sixties and Seventies more than 200 mayors supported by a socialist-communist alliance were elected, with more than 50% of Japanese by the end of Sixties already living under either a progressive mayor or governor, or even both. Progressives presided over measures such as the establishment of new social security benefits and (in the case of Kawasaki) compensation for victims of pollution, while also fighting successfully for the right to increase taxes on corporations; one that all local governments came to enjoy.

The rise of the Left on a local and prefectural level was in many ways the LDP’s own making. In the decade following its formation, the LDP had presided over a strong economy together with big rises in living standards. Nevertheless, they failed to prevent problems such as city overcrowding and pollution, while also failing to overcome deficiencies in housing, public transportation, and facilities for child care and the elderly. These contradictions provided fertile ground for reformers to build electoral support and tackle these problems headlong. In a speech he made following his election as governor, Minobe highlighted these contradictions by noting that ownership of TVs and electric washers existed alongside unpaved streets, an incomplete sewage system and cases of drinking water being shut-off. This was the situation that Minobe inherited; one that his administration offered the hope of rectifying. The legislative environment was favourable for Minobe, who had the benefit of working with a reformist majority made up of left-wing parties in Tokyo’s legislature. This included not only members of the Socialist and Communist parties, but also the Democratic Socialists (a moderate progressive force) and Komeito; a religious Buddhist party that supported improvements in amenities and welfare services, amongst other goals. This provided a strong basis for Minobe to put his ideals into practice. Free municipal transport passes and medical care for those aged 70 and above were introduced (the latter measure being one that other localities would subsequently adopt), together with nurseries for mothers at work, allowances for children and facilities for handicapped residents. Pensions were also expanded, while efforts were made to elevate conditions in Sanya, a slum area in Tokyo, with more up-to-date flophouses constructed and better waste collection. An emergency shelter for separated wives with children in the process of divorce was also established; the first of its kind in Japan.

Living standards

These programmes reflected Minobe’s belief in the universalistic “civil minimum system,” in which facilities existed that were essential for the maintenance of minimum living standards for citizens. Much of Minobe’s reform agenda focused on environmental matters, with pollution control standards adopted that were more stringent than those in place nationally. He also backed national legislation in 1970 that led to the introduction of 14 ordinances aimed at tackling pollution in the Tokyo area. “Pedestrian paradises” were also set up, in which cars were barred from some of Tokyo's major shopping and amusement areas on Sunday afternoons; an initiative which improved air quality for Tokyoites. In addition, pay was increased for welfare institution workers, the rights of sanitation workers (a discriminated against group) were improved, and a training school was set up to help senior citizens make a living past retirement. Government sponsorship of race tracks was also brought to an end, reflecting Minobe’s view of gambling being an unofficial tax on poor individuals. Minobe also believed in getting people involved in decisions that affected their lives, conversing directly with residents in town hall meetings in the belief that Tokyo’s residents could become managers of their own city.

Minobe’s reforms had an impact on the LDP, who introduced on a nationwide basis several of the measures that Minobe and fellow progressives across Japan had inaugurated. When Tokyo’s government announced plans in 1971 for free medical care for children who had cancer, the national administration adopted its own plan. Two years later, the national government introduced new entitlements including indexed pensions and free medical care to the over-70s. Kakuei Tanaka, the prime minister who presided over these policy decisions, interpreted Minobe’s victory as a reflection of people’s frustration with overcrowding in big cities, and his government also initiated laws making it hard for large plants to be constructed in metropolitan areas while incentivising firms to locate new manufacturing facilities in the countryside. Arguably, the LDP’s decision to introduce several of the social programmes launched by local progressives on a nationwide basis was a reflection of their realisation of the electoral implications that such schemes could have on their incumbency. Indeed, it enabled the LDP to overcome the challenge that local progressives posed to them, who had taken the initiative in tackling issues concerning welfare and the environment. It also demonstrates how far Minobe’s influence, and by extension that of his progressive counterparts across Japan, went beyond local and regional boundaries in shaping that country’s social and economic development. Minobe was also a popular figure. When re-elected four years later, he did so with 65% of the vote and three-quarters of the electorate casting a ballot; a record at that time.

Historic continuity

It is arguable that Minobe’s agenda represented a historic continuity with the reform efforts of past leftist leaders, the lasting impact of which reverberated throughout Japanese society. During the Twenties and Thirties Japan was led on two separate occasions by the liberal Kensekei and Rikken Minseitō parties. Although the former presided over a tough law allowing for individuals that the government viewed as subversive to be imprisoned, and the latter for carrying out economic austerity during the Great Depression, they nevertheless delivered tangible results for ordinary citizens in the passage of visionary measures including a widening of the franchise, factory reform, health insurance, and legislation aimed at helping tenant farmers. Similar reforms were carried out under the socialist-led coalition of Tetsu Katayama that briefly led Japan in 1947, such as the granting of organisational and collective bargaining rights to workers and a Ministry of Labor which promoted the rights of not only workers, but also those of women and children in postwar Japan. The policy agendas of Minobe and other local progressives were part of this reform tradition in Japanese history, and offered the prospect of the Japanese Left replacing the LDP as the dominant force in national politics. But this was not to be.

The one factor that helped stem the progressive tide was the 1973 oil shock, which saw Japan’s Gross National Product fall for the first time since the war. This lowered the rise of tax revenue for local governments, which in turn limited the ability of progressives to fund imaginative reforms. Bureaucrats and the LDP rallied against welfare, associating it with societal problems including crime and divorce, and progressive local governments were criticised by the LDP “for throwing around money for welfare.” Such scaremongering helped conservatives score major gains locally. During the late Seventies several progressives either stood down or were defeated, replaced by figures from the political Right. Although Minobe was elected to a third term in 1975, he did so by a narrow margin. His tenure also had its shortcomings. Reflecting his belief in popular democracy, Minobe espoused a “philosophy of the bridge,” vowing that he wouldn’t construct a bridge if it faced opposition from just one resident. Although there were instances of local policy decision making working well, this philosophy had unfortunate consequences. Public housing projects, for instance, were delayed in the face of opposition from certain residents, with cuts in the number of new homes built despite the need for the latter in the face of a housing shortage. In a way, Minobe’s own ideas backfired and worked against his own agenda. In 1977, Minobe lost his majority in the Tokyo legislature, and two years later the LDP and Komeito teamed up to prevent a Socialist-Communist candidate from winning that year’s gubernatorial election. The following year only four opposition figures were left that held the post of governor. The golden age of local progressivism in Japan, which for a time seemed likely to usher in a new dawn in national politics, had finally ended.

Although Minobe and his fellow progressives failed to replicate their electoral successes nationally by becoming a viable, long-term alternative to the established LDP, the fact that they achieved so much on behalf of their communities is not only indicative of the pivotal role that local reformers have played in changing Japan for the better, but it also gives an idea of what the Japanese Left can accomplish if it were to attain national power. The growth in income inequality in recent years, together with surveys showing widespread public dissatisfaction with the existing democratic system, offers fertile ground for such a seismic shift in Japanese politics to take place. For Japanese progressives who hope to achieve their aims of electoral victory and a more egalitarian society, the Minobe era is a model worth emulating.

What do you think of Ryokichi Minobe? Let us know below.

Easy Ways To Spark Your Children’s Love of History

Recent results from the National Assessment of Educational Progress has found that only 15% of children are proficient in the subject of history. Knowledge about key events, including the American Revolution and the voyages of Christopher Columbus, is at an all time low and there was a general perception that history is boring. Students certainly weren’t considering how important history is and why we need to learn from it - so that humankind doesn’t repeat the same mistakes again, and we have a chance to grow and improve. History is a rich and glorious subject, and if we spark our children’s interests while they are young, they can continue to be passionate about history as they get older. 

The 1560 painting Children’s Games by Pieter Bruegel the Elder.

Bedtime stories

A bedtime story is the ideal way to wind down and relax at the end of the day. Reading with your child is also a great way of bonding. There are some wonderful historical fiction books for all ages, even toddlers. For little ones try Meg and the Romans by Jan Pienkowski - the bright, colorful images will help them to visualize the story. The Cat Mummy by Jacqueline Wilson & Nick Sharratt is another fun book for the 7-9 age group. The Horrible Histories series by Terry Deary is still incredibly popular and has inspired a long-running TV series. For older readers, there are some incredibly exciting books that will really bring history to life, such as The Eagle of the Ninth by Rosemary Sutcliff, and the TimeRiders series by Alex Scarrow. 

Local History Walks

History isn’t a million miles away - it’s right on your doorstep, and you can learn about it every day. Have a look on your local town website and see if there are some organized heritage walks that you can do together. Take a trip to the library or the local museum and see if you can find out about the people that lived in your area one hundred years ago. What kind of clothes did they wear and what kind of food did they eat? How was life different for the children? There is so much to find out about the area where you live. 

Start a family tree

Learning about the history of your family is one of the most exciting and interesting ways that you can get your children engaged. You can find out so much even from talking to your immediate relatives, as well as grandparents. You can start a family tree on paper, or use a website like Ancestry.com to create a tree. There are a wealth of resources that you can find online, from birth and death certificates, to census details and military records. Together you can find out about the history of your family and learn how things have changed from one generation to the next. 

History can begin at home, and there is so much you can do to inspire children to learn. Together you can find out about the history of your local area and your own family. 

Murders in a Nazi Prisoner-of-War Camp - And Canada's Last Mass Execution

Here Nathan M. Greenfield tells us about his book: Hanged in Medicine Hat: Murders in a Nazi Prisoner-of-War Camp, and the Disturbing True Story of Canada's Last Mass Execution (Amazon US | Amazon UK).

Medicine Hat railway station in the early 20th century.

On 5 March 1946, 16-year-old Joyce Reesor played truant from her high school in Medicine Hat, Alberta –to watch the end of what would ultimately be six of the most unique trials in Canadian history.  In each, a German POW, some former Afrika Korpsman others who had belonged to Hermann Göring’s Luftwaffe, stood on trial for his life for the killing of two other POWs, one in 1943 and one in 1944.  The denouement of Rex v. Werner Schwalb that Reesor witnessed – Judge Howson’s saying of the ancient words, “and shall be hanged by the neck until you are dead, and may the Lord have mercy on your soul”–was hardly a surprise.  Hamstrung by the lack of character witnesses, defence attorney Louis S. Turcotte declined to mount a defence, and had been reduced to sniping at the case presented by Alberta’s deputy attorney journal, H. H. Wilson, QC, who appointed himself crown prosecutor.

Turcotte landed a few blows, successfully arguing on the first day for the case against the three POWs accused of killing Private August Plaszek in 1943 to be split into separate trials.  He forced the pre-war lawyer Hans Schnorrenpfeil to growl “Nein” when pressed on his previous statement that he had actually seen the men secreted behind a screen in a POW hut whose job it was to take down the testimony of men being interrogated for treason against Germany.  He led the court through a mind-numbing excursus on whether Boden meant clay or earth, which Howson ended by declaring, “ ‘clay’ is earth and earth is ‘clay’ ” and Plaszek was struck in the head by a large clod wielded by a POW.

Camp 132

But in the end the six men on the jury believed the story that began with around 5 p.m. on July 22, 1943, Private Reginald Back of the Veterans Guard saw a man waving a white cloth and running toward the warning wire of Camp 132. But no soccer ball had bounced out of bounds. No one was playing soccer when Back looked down from his perch in Tower No. 7. Rather, he saw that the man waving the white cloth was being chased by hundreds of angry, shouting inmates. Once the desperate POW crossed the warning wire, his pursuers halted, knowing that without white flags they risked being shot. To ensure that the mob respected the boundary, Back ostentatiously aimed his rifle.

From their vantage points on Towers 7 and 4 respectively, Back and Sergeant Frederic C. Byers struggled to make out which of the prisoners was being dragged backward away from them, and the faces of the two men who were doing the dragging.

The tower guards could see Plaszek being taken toward the west recreation hall. Back called the guard room asking for scouts to return to the enclosure, make their way to the recreation hall and free the man.  Byers also called the guard room with the same request. In an effort to deter the four men manhandling Plaszek, Back called the sentries in Tower No. 6 and ordered them to fire shots over the men’s heads, but for reasons unknown, the men in this tower did not follow Back’s orders. After ten minutes, with no sign of the scouts re-entering the enclosure, Back called the guard room again. By this time, he “felt the man would be dead because of the delay.”

The first senior POW to hear of what happened to Plaszek after he was dragged to the recreation hall appears to have been Dr. Nolte, who saw “a body hanging by the west wall.” The rope had been passed around the victim’s neck twice and drawn so tight it cut into his flesh by about an inch. After pushing his way through the crowd, Nolte felt for a pulse but “found no sign of life” and ordered Plaszek’s body to be cut down.

Plaszek’s body was a horrible sight. Said Royal Army Medical Korps Captain W. F. Hall: “[The] face of the deceased was very swollen—the tongue was sticking out slightly and there was blood from the nostrils and mouth and also from the back of the head.”

*****

As would be true during their investigation of the killing of Dr. Karl Lehmann on DATE, the RCMP and Military Intelligence faced something approaching a wall of silence enforced by the camp Gestapo; when the cases were broken after Germany’s surrender in May 1945, Canadian authorities discovered that Lehmann’s murder had been ordered by the Gestapo.  Slowly, however, POWs came forward and the RCMP charged men with Plaszek’s murder and the four men charged with killing Lehmann.  One of the key pieces of evidence against Adolf Kratz was his swagger: another was boast after the killing, as he ate a hard-boiled egg “The egg tastes that much better because I have helped hang a traitor.”  Lehmann’s killers had each signed a confession, which provided little more than a tied ribbon at the end of the story of the bloody killing of a fellow Afrika Korpsman.

*****

In the end, for killing Plaszek, one man was found innocent and two guilty, this second being Schulz.  Just before the trap door opened and his body fell, he called out, “My Fuhrer, I follow thee.”  The four men charged with killing Lehmann were hanged on 18 December 1946, the last mass hanging in Canadian history.

Today

Now an appellate court would almost certainly declare each of these trails a mistrial. We need look no further than the contentious use of evidence of homosexuality by both the Crown and the defense, each an POWs sexual past in an attempt to shake the jury’s belief in the evidence he presented: perhaps the most egregious statement being “Let us step a little deeper into the mire” in defense attorney Rice’s questioning of Wilhelm Wendt, who had been camp 132’s Man of Confidence, i.e., the leader of the POWs and, secretly, a lead Nazi.

Even in the context of 1946, the trials and their outcome are highly debatable.  As was argued in detail in the appeal of the convictions for killing Lehmann, the trials took place in the wrong venue. Both the War Measures Act and the Geneva Convention called for such important charges to be adjudged in military –not civilian – court.

Notwithstanding Judge Howson’s statement from the bench, “I am of the opinion that the land comprised in the Prisoner of War Camp, No. 132, at Medicine Hat, is part of the Dominion of Canada,” things were not the clear cut.  Under the Geneva Convention, prisoners of war remain under the military law of their home army, which is why the Convention recognizes the right of a POW to try to escape when his home army makes that a duty, as both the German and British military codes did.  The Convention also recognized that, for example, in the case of POW Camp 132, German military law prevailed within the wire.  Accordingly, once, following the failure of the Bomb Plot in 1944 Hitler gave the order to liquidate traitors, German soldiers in Canada had reason to consider themselves bound to do so: Lehmann was suspected of treason (and, in fact, did give Canadian authorities information).  Indeed, in a similar case in South Africa, the judge ruled against the death penalty saying that the German POWs feared for their lives if they did not carry out the orders of their camp’s Gestapo.

Nathan’s book is available here: Amazon US | Amazon UK